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Al,    COMMITTEE    FOR     THE     PREVENTION     OF     BLINDNESS     PUBLICATIONS 

No.  12.— EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 


EYE  HAZARDS  in  INDUSTRIAL 
OCCUPATIONS 

A  REPORT  OF  TYPICAL  CASES  AND  CONDITIONS, 
WITH  RECOMMENDATIONS  FOR  SAFE  PRACTICE 


NOVEMBER,  1917 


NATIONAL  COMMITTEEFORTHEPREVENTIONOFBLINDNESS 

130     EAST     TWENTY-SECOND     STREET,    NEW    YORK 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/eyehazardsininduOOberrrich 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL 
OCCUPATIONS 


A  REPORT  OF  TYPICAL  CASES  AND  CONDITIONS, 
WITH  RECOMMENDATIONS  FOR  SAFE  PRACTICE 


BY 

Gordon  L.  Berry,  Field  Secretary 

NATIONAL    COMMITTEE    FOR  THE  PREVENTION  OF    BLINDNESS — WITH   THE    CO-OPERA- 
TION  OF   LIEUT.  THOMAS   P.    BRADSHAW,   U.  S.  ARMY,  FORMERLY  TECHNICAL 
ASSISTANT  TO  THE   DIRECTOR  OF  THE   AMERICAN   MUSEUM   OF  SAFETY 


NOVEMBER,  1917 


130  EAST  TWENTY-SECOND  STREET 
NEW  YORK  CITY 


•  •     •  «,  •  •     • 


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FOREWORD 

Between  August  8  and  November  8,  1916,  a  survey  of  repre- 
sentative industries  in  the  city  of  Buffalo  was  made  by  the 
National  Committee  for  the  Prevention  of  Blindness.  The  study 
was  made  at  the  invitation  of  a  large  number  of  leading  citizens 
of  Buffalo,  the  object  being  to  ascertain  the  local  working  condi- 
tions and  the  industrial  accident  hazards  which  might  be  pro- 
ductive of  eye  injuries.  The  present  publication  has  grown  out 
of  this  survey. 

Starting  with  the  Buffalo  study  as  a  basis,  endeavor  has  been 
made  to  cover  also  practically  the  entire  field  of  hazards  to  the 
eyes  in  industrial  occupations  in  the  United  States,  with  the  hope 
that  the  suggestions  contained  herein  may  be  welcomed  in  in- 
dustrial concerns  generally. 

The  usefulness  and  timeliness  of  this  pamphlet  are  accen- 
tuated because  of  the  abnormal  demand  for  labor  due  to  war- 
time conditions,  with  the  consequent  independent  attitude  of 
the  worker,  which  has  had  a  marked  influence  on  safety  work. 
Therefore  the  educational  efforts  of  the  different  plants  for  the 
elimination  or  reduction  of  accidents  have  received  the  most 
severe  test,  for  in  normal  times  a  worker  may  observe  shop  rules 
and  regulations  largely  in  order  to  insure  his  employment. 

Where  the  working  force  has  been  greatly  increased,  we  may 
expect  the  new  employes  to  be  subject  to  more  injuries  than 
under  normal  conditions.  The  rushed  work  and  the  large  num- 
ber of  new  employes  unacquainted  with  the  plant  conditions, 
together  with  the  impossibility  of  foremen  giving  to  each  the 
proper  amount  of  attention,  are  in  some  measure  responsible  for 
an  increased  toll  of  injury. 

The  large  floating  supply  of  labor  can  receive  but  little 
safety  education,  and  these  workers  are  a  constant  source  of 
worry  to  safety  engineers.  Many  of  this  claas  of  newly  em- 
ployed workmen  will  seek  employment  elsewhere  rather  than 

5 

415649 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

conform  to  safety  rules  and  regulations  which  are  not  to  their 
liking.  Because  this  condition  has  obtained  in  many  manu- 
facturing plants,  enforcement  of  safety  rules  has  not  always  been 
insisted  upon.  Again,  the  necessity  of  seeking  and  developing 
new  processes  of  manufacture,  unknown  in  this  country  before 
the  beginning  of  the  war,  has  confronted  safety  workers  with 
unfamiliar  problems,  with  the  solution  of  many  of  which  they  are 
yet  engaged.  It  is  almost  needless  to  state  that  the  urgency  for 
safety  effort  meantime  has  increased  to  a  marked  degree. 

SCOPE  OF  THE  BUFFALO  INQUIRY 
In  the  city  of  Buffalo  70  plants,  employing  a  total  of  35,000 
workers,  were  studied.  These  embraced  many  different  types 
of  industry.  To  include  a  large  variety  and  to  go  into  a  careful 
study  of  all  the  various  operations  wherein  hazard  to  eyesight 
may  exist  were  the  principles  of  selection.  There  were  inspected 
plants  having  a  small  number  of  employes  as  well  as  those  with 
thousands  on  their  payroll;  manufactories  located  under  favor- 
able and  those  under  unfavorable  conditions  were  included. 
Pains  were  taken  to  visit  plants  whose  managers  had  for  an  ex- 
tended time  taken  interest  in  safety  work  and  where  effective 
results  had  been  obtained,  for  in  them  are  presented  fields  for 
study  in  which  much  valuable  information  may  be  secured. 
Several  plants  were  studied  from  the  lighting  standpoint  alone. 

LIST  OF  PLANTS  STUDIED 
Stone,  Clay,  Glass  Products 

Buffalo  Glass  Company Mirrors,  leaded  glass,  etc. 

Wm.  J.  Crawford  and  Company Monuments 

Barber  Asphalt  Paving  Company Asphalt  paving  machinery 

Dwelle- Kaiser  Company Beveled  glass 

Brass,  Copper,  Aluminum 

George  A.  Ray  Mfg.  Company Houseware 

Sherwood  Mfg.  Company Brass  and  copper  specialties 

Aluminum  Castings  Company Aluminum  castings 

Buffalo  Chemical  Fire  Extinguisher  Co. .  .  .  Fire  extinguishers  and  fireless 

cookers 

Gold,  Silver,  and  Precious  Stones 

Heintz  Brothers Gold  rings 

King  and  Eisele  Company Rings,  badges,  lens  grinding, 

jewelry 

6 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

Sheet  Iron  Works 
Republic  Metalware  Company Tinware 

Hardware 
Buffalo  Wire  Works,  Inc.,  Plants  A  &  B. .  .  Wire  goods 

Castings,  Forcings,  Etc. 

Barcalo  Mfg.  Company Brass  and  iron  bedsteads 

Bicalky  Fan  Company * Fans  and  ventilating  apparatus 

Farrar  and  Trefts,  Inc Iron  castings 

Lake  Erie  Foundry  Company Castings 

Buffalo  Forge  Company Forges  and  blowers 

Strong  Steel  Foundry  Company Steel  castings 

Jewell  Steel  and  Malleable  Company Castings 

l.ackawanna  Steel. Company Steel  products 

Machinery 

Eastman  Machine  Company Cloth-cutting  machinery 

Wittemann  Company Brewers'  machinery 

Otis  Elevator  Company Elevators 

Niagara  Machine  and  Tool  Works Machines  and  tools 

E.  &  B.  Holmes  Machinery  Company Cooperage  machinery 

Manzel  Brothers  Company Oil  and  air  pumps 

American  Radiator  Company Radiators 

Buffalo  Gasoline  Motor  Company Gasoline  motors  and  marine 

engines 

John  E.  Smith's  Sons  Company Butchers'  machinery 

Buffalo  Foundry  and  Machine  Company  .  .  Machinery  and  castings 

Contractors  Plant  Mfg.  Company Hoisting  machinery 

J.  W.  Ruger  Mfg.  Co Bakers'  machinery 

Sterling  Engine  Company .  .  .Gas  engines 

King  Sewing  Machine  Company Sewing  machines 

Instruments  and  Electric  Apparatus 

Ericsson  Mfg.  Company Telephones,  magnetos,  etc. 

United  States  Headlight  Company Headlights 

Buffalo  Scale  Company Scales 

Carriages  and  Automobiles 

Pierce-Arrow  Motor  Car  Company Automobiles 

Ford  Motor  Company Automobile  assembly 

Atterbury  Motor  Car  Company Automobiles 

Car  and  Railway  Repair  Shops 

International  Railway  Company Car  repairing 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company Car  repairing 

American  Car  and  Foundry  Company 

(Depew  and  Niagara  plants) Freight  cars 

New  York  Central  and  H.  R.  Railway 

Company Locomotive  repairing 

Paper  and  Paper  Goods 

F.  N.  Burt  Company,  Ltd. .Plants  A,  B,  C.  Paper  boxes 

7 


EYE    HAZARDS    IX    INDUSTRIAL    OCCUPATIOXS 

Pianos,  Organs,  and  Other  Musical  Instruments 
C.  Kurtzman  and  Company Pianos 

Boots  and  Shoes 

Niagara  Shoe  Company Children's  shoes 

John  Ebberts  Shoe  Company Women's  shoes 

Miscellaneous  Leather  and  Canvas  Goods 

McKinnon  Dash  Company Leather  dashboards  and  enameling 

Schoellkopf  and  Company Tanning  sheepskins 

Rubber  Goods,  Buttons,  Brushes 
Hewitt  Rubber  Company Rubber  goods 

Chemicals,  Oils,  Paints,  Etc. 

Wood  Products  Company .Wood  alcohol 

Larkin  Company Soaps,  perfumes,  premiums 

Contact  Process  Company Acids 

General  Chemical  Company Chemicals  and  acids 

Schoellkopf,  Hartford  and  Hanna Aniline  dyes 

Women's  Garments  and  Furnishings 

Wm.  Hengerer  Company Altering  suits,  etc. 

Barman  Bros.  Company Dresses 

Beverages 

Lang-Gerhard  Brewery Beer 

Magnus  Beck  Brewing  Company. Beer 

Textiles 

Monarch  Knitting  Company,  Ltd Sweaters 

Buffalo  Silk  Fabric  Company Silk 

Gould  Coupler  Company Car  couplers 

Gould  Storage  Battery  Company Storage  batteries  * 

METHOD 

In  the  plant  inspection  each  operation  was  studied,  and  the 
use  and  efficacy  noted  of  such  protective  devices  as  had  been 
provided.  The  attitude  of  employer  and  workman  alike  toward 
the  need  for  eye  protection  in  any  process,  or  toward  the  use  of 
the  protective  features,  was  made  the  subject  of  special  inquiry. 
Not  only  on  mechanical  points  and  theory  were  the  workmen 
sounded,  but  also  their  opinions  were  sought  on  the  problems  of 
illumination  that  presented  themselves. 

Following  inspection  of  each  plant,  a  conference  was  held 
with  the  officials  in  charge.  Criticisms  and  suggestions  were 
made  for  the  betterment  of  plant  conditions.     It  is  gratifying 

8 


EYE  HAZARDS  IX  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

to  be  able  to  state  that  in  every  case  this  unbiased  criticism  was 
received  with  marked  interest,  and  frequently  the  investigator 
was  urged  to  advise  in  detail  regarding  safety  plans  and  methods 
for  early  adoption. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

Formal  acknowledgment  is  here  gratefully  rendered  to  those 
who  made  possible  this  survey  of  industrial  conditions  in  Buffalo, 
and  to  those  who  have  given  most  generously  of  their  time  and 
constructive  criticism  in  the  preparation  of  the  text  of  this  pub- 
lication. 

For  their  assistance  at  different  periods  and  for  their  interest 
in  the  work  the  Committee  is  especially  indebted  to  Dr.  Ellice 
M.  Alger,  New  York;  Mr.  Edward  J.  Barcalo,  President,  As- 
sociated Manufacturers  and  Merchants  (of  New  York  State), 
Buffalo;  Mr.  David  S.  Beyer,  Manager,  Massachusetts  Em- 
ployees' Insurance  Association,  Boston;  Dr.  Nelson  M.  Black, 
Milwaukee;  Mr.  Raynal  C.  Boiling,  General  Solicitor,  Chairman 
of  Committee  on  Safety,  United  States  Steel  Corporation,  New 
York;  Mr.  A.  E.  Brock,  Secretary,  Wholesale  Merchants'  and 
Manufacturers'  Association,  Buffalo;  Mr.  W.  H.  Cameron,  Gen- 
eral Manager,  National  Safety  Council,  Chicago;  Mr.  C.  L.  Close, 
Manager  Bureau  of  Safety,  Sanitation  and  Welfare,  U.  S.  Steel 
Corporation,  New  York;  Dr.  Colman  W.  Cutler,  New  York; 
Mr.  Mark  A.  Daly,  General  Secretary,  Associated  Manufacturers 
and  Merchants  (of  New  York  State),  Buffalo;  Mr.  Marcus  A. 
Dow,  General  Safety  Agent,  New  York  Central  Lines,  New  York; 
Dr.  Francis  E.  Fronczak,  Health  Commissioner,  Buffalo;  Dr. 
Harold  Gifford,  Omaha;  Dr.  Franklin  C.  Gram,  Department  of 
Health,  Buffalo;  Dr.  F.  Park  Lewis,  Buffalo;  Mr.  Preston  S. 
Millar,  New  York;  Mr.  George  S.  Rice,  Bureau  of  Mines,  Wash- 
ington, and  Mr.  George  H.  Stickney,  Harrison,  New  Jersey. 

In  large  measure  the  local  success  of  the  Buffalo  survey  was 
due  to  the  uniform  courtesy  of  the  plant  officials  and  safety  direc- 
tors of  the  70  organizations  visited,  to  their  readiness  to  assist 
the  investigator  in  his  study  of  plant  conditions,  and  to  the  va- 
rious contributions  which  they  have  made  in  models,  diagrams, 
photographs,  statistics,  and  general  information. 

9 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

There  will  be  available  a  synopsis  of  this  publication  which 
may  be  used  as  the  basis  of  a  lecture,  amplified  by  lantern-slide 
illustrations  depicting  every  hazard  and  protective  device  men- 
tioned herein.  Copies  of  the  lantern  slides  may  be  purchased  at 
cost  or  will  be  loaned  with  the  synopsis  without  charge  other 
than  transportation  expenses  upon  application  to  the  Secretary, 
National  Committee  for  the  Prevention  of  Blindness,  130  East 
Twenty-second  Street,  New  York  City. 

Edward  M.  Van  Cleve, 
Managing  Director,  National  Committee  for  the  Prevention  of  Blindness. 

New  York,  N.  Y. 
November,  19 17. 


10 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Foreword 5 

Scope  of  the  Buffalo  Inquiry 6 

List  of  Plants  Studied 6 

Method 8 

Acknowledgment   9 

Statistics  on  Eye  Accidents I2,  13 

Chipping  Operations 21 

Machine  Operations 24 

Abrasive  Wheels , 27 

Sand-blasting 34 

"Mushroomed "  Tools 38 

Riveting 41 

Radiations  from  Intense  Light  and  Heat  Sources 44 

Ultra-Violet  Rays  in  Illuminants 46 

Radiant  Energy  in  Arc  Welding  and  in  Molten  Metal 47 

Molten  Metal  Hazards 54 

The  Blast  Furnace 56 

The  Open-hearth  Furnace 58 

The  Electric  Furnace 60 

Glass-blowers'  Cataract 66 

Removal  of  a  Foreign  Substance  from  the  Eye 69 

Gage-Glasses 73 

Acids  and  Chemicals 77 

Treatment  of  Acid  Burns 83 

Eye  Burns  from  Caustic  Soda 83 

Industrial  Poisons 86 

Measures  for  the  Protection  of  Industrial  Workers  Against  Dangers  of 

Poison 87 

Removal  of  Dangerous  Fumes,  Vapors,  and  Gases 88 

Spray  Process  Hazards 90 

Methyl  Alcohol  (Wood  Alcohol) . 92 

Bottling  Accidents 99 

Mining  and  Quarrying 99 

(xoggles  for  Quarrymen 105 

Miner's  Nystagmus 106 

Agricultural  Hazards 106 

Goggles 1 10 

Garment  Workers 1 16 

Industrial  Lighting I2I 

Office  Lighting 134 

Equipment I35 

Local  vs.  General  Illumination 136 

Daylight  Illumination 136 

The  Safety  Movement 137 

The  National  Safety  Council 137 

The  American  Museum  of  Safety 140 

Conclusion 141 


1 

e 

Figures    shown     herewith 
are  computed  on  the  basis 
of  two  years— as  covered 
in  the  statement. 

Eye  Acci- 
dents Re- 
sulting in 
Tempor- 
ary Dis- 
ability 

-                                    ^                                                                    CN                O                      00                                           Ov 

O                           -0                                                   ^            00                 -o                               >o 
■^             _            M                                -XT,                             M              •                r» 

A  ccidents 
Resulting 
in  Tem- 
porary 
Disabil- 
ity 

^5                            .-:     ;2       ;t              & 

t^            r;              .              .                   .                 lo            rr                lO              .                 "1 

Eye  Acci- 
dents Re- 
sulting in 
Perma- 
nent 
Partial 
Disabil- 
ity 

W            lO              .              .                   .                 tT            o>                 M                               o 

Accidents 
Resulting 
in  Per- 
manent 
Partial 
Disabil- 
ity 

■*                                                                                                Tf                         00                   lO                           0>                                                  N 

O                .                .                .                   O                   rn            OC                   OO                 .                    « 
^i                .                .                .                    f*5                   Ov             Tt                                      •                    "^ 

Accidents 

Resulting 

in  Total 

Loss  of 

Sight 

Accidents 
Resulting 
in  Total 
Disabil- 
ity 

ifl              "O                    f^                 . 

^1 

ONOOO                    ^                   TfON                   OO                   lO 
O                >0              00                                         O                      O^                -1                       N                                         00_ 

oOOrOOO                  Tj-                  r-C                   ^^^0                  ro 
fCOr-fs                   tM                  O-^                  OOi                  M 

lo         00          w          q              f^             q          q             oo          n              uj 

t^            vo"            o"              w                    «                    ■^             »0                  o"                                    -4 

July  1,1915, to 
July  30, 1916 

Year    ended 
June  30. 1916 

Sept.    I,  1915. 

to    Aug.    31. 

1916 
July  I,  i9i4.to 

June  30,  1916 

Nov.   r,    1915, 
to    Oct,    31. 
1916 

July  I,  i9i4,to 
June  30, 1915 

Year    ending 
June  30, 1916 

Year    ending 
June  30, 1916 

Year  to   Aug. 
31.  1916 

Year    ended 
Sept.  30,  1913 

Source  of  Information 

Report  of  the  Indus- 
trial Accident  Com- 
mission 

Third  Annual  Report 
of     the     Industrial 
Board  of  Illinois 

Annual    Report,    In- 
dustrial Board  of  In- 
diana 

Statement  by  Roscoe 
A.  Eddy,  Commis- 
sioner of  Labor 

Second    Annual    Re- 
port of  the  State  In- 
dustrial      Accident 
Commission 

Third  Annual  Report 
of  the  Industrial  Ac- 
cident Board 

Fifteenth       Biennial 
Report  of  the  De- 
partment of  Labor 
and  Industries 

First  Annual  Report 
of     the     Industrial 
Accident    Board 

Eleventh        Biennial 
Report  of  the  New 
Hampshire    Bureau 
of  Labor 

Bulletin  No.  68,  De- 
partment of  Labor 
of  the  State  of  New 
York 

a 

.2 

1  i 

6     s 

a 
c 

9. 

.s 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 
Minnesota 

New  Hampshire . 
New  York 

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13 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 


fE  GLASSES     BOTH  EYES  SUES  FOB  LOSS 

SAVEDHIS EVES  ^p^  gym^jg  Of  HIS  EYESIGI 

vr^'tNichoisi-'ssighrr^^r 


"C'-'^W.    ^'■c  (ACCIDENT  MAV  COST       |>^   ^ ,,. ?SHi:-?A>'''<.- ' 


nuinitio 


i^v. 


'-■'"^y.^^lB.OOOAWARatO  MINER         i        $20,000  FOE  EYE 
*"•  ''^^,  XOR  LOSS  OF  HIS  EYESIGHT. ,  — 

^^/-  ^^M^^^'^'^'^  L°^''-  SIGHT 
^    '^<^'vV»'-  OP^I^KIGHTEY 

'%  ^    '^^^  <*^/-'  ^PI-OVE  AT  STEEL 
^.;°  *;%     %^  /  PI-ANT  is  BURNEVi^\ 


ME!EfflI!  BALED  COI^  INJURES  AN  EM 


Fig.  I. — "All  in  the  day's  work.' 


14 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

Classified  facts  respecting  the  hazards  in  industrial  occupa- 
tions have  from  time  to  time  been  collected  by  various  investi- 
gators. Probably  the  most  reliable  compilation  of  these  figures 
is  that  made  by  the  Prudential  Life  Insurance  Company  of 
America,  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Frederick  L.  Hoffman. 
Mr.  Hoffman's  investigations  show  that  during  the  year  1913 
there  were  approximately  25,000  fatal  accidents,  300,000  serious 
injuries,  and  2,000,000  other  injuries  to  workmen  in  the  United 
States.  For  the  year  19 16  he  predicts  that  there  will  probably 
be  shown,  when  all  figures  are  in,  a  reduction  of  about  12.3  per 
cent,  in  fatal  industrial  accident  frequency,  and  a  reduction  of 
about  28  per  cent,  in  serious  industrial  accident  frequency.  If 
the  statistics,  when  in,  bear  out  that  premise,  the  figures  will  be : 
about  22,000  deaths  from  industrial  accidents,  and  about  500,000 
accidents  sufficiently  serious  to  lay  the  workman  off  for  a  period 
of  more  than  four  weeks. 

Until  within  a  very  recent  period  no  special  effort  has  been 
made  to  ascertain  what  general  percentage  of  this  tremendous 
number  of  industrial  accidents  is  that  in  which  the  eyes  are  con- 
cerned. The  lack  of  such  information  has  doubtless  been  due  to 
the  fact  that  but  a  very  few  organizations  would  be  sufficiently 
concerned  with  such  specialized  data  as  to  make  the  necessary 
study,  and,  secondly,  because  in  the  industrial  accident  reports 
available  for  such  investigation  there  is  no  uniform  segregated 
statistical  information  of  this  nature,  and  it  is  therefore  neces- 
sary to  study  hundreds  of.  pages  of  largely  irrelevant  material  to 
secure  such  data  as  are  available  on  eye  injuries  as  separated  from 
those  affecting  other  portions  of  the  body. 

In  the  digest  of  the  statistical  investigation  of  this  subject 
which  has  been  made  for  inclusion  in  this  publication  (see  pages 
12-13),  there  is  clear  indication  of  the  lack  of  uniformity  in 
classifications  of  the  nature  of  injuries  recorded  in  annual  reports 

15 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

of  State  Departments  of  Labor,  State  Industrial  Accident  Boards, 
or  State  Insurance  Commissions.  Fortunately,  however,  there 
appears  to  be  a  growing  disposition  to  adopt  the  uniform  methods 
of  reporting  and  preparation  of  statistical  information,  as  recom- 
mended by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  so  that 
it  is  to  be  hoped  that  within  a  few  years  complete  information 
along  this  line  will  be  available. 

The  following  states  provide  reports  from  which  it  has  been 
possible  to  ascertain  the  total  number  of  industrial  accidents  and 
the  number  of  these  which  have  been  eye  accidents  during  any 
recent  fiscal  year:  California,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Maine,  Mary- 
land, Massachusetts,  Minnesota,  Montana,  New  Hampshire, 
New  York,  Ohio,  Oklahoma,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  Tennessee, 
Vermont,  and  Washington. 

The  reports  do  not  coincide  so  far  as  dates  are  concerned. 
They  give,  however,  the  statistics  for  the  latest  twelve  months' 
period  on  which  data  are  available,  and  show  that  for  the  latest 
respective  fiscal  years  reported  on  to  June,  19 17,  there  are  re- 
corded 710,571  industrial  accidents.  Of  this  total  there  have 
been  reported  59,436  eye  accidents,  thus  establishing  approxi- 
mately 8.3  per  cent,  for  eye  accidents,  in  a  total  of  one-third  of 
all  non-fatal  accidents  occurring  annually  in  the  LTnited  States. 

In  any  consideration  of  the  statistics  on  industrial  accidents 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  for  one  exemption  reason  or  an- 
other there  are  thousands  of  employers  and  employes  in  the 
various  states  not  covered  by  the  State  Acts.  Many  of  the 
annual  reports  include  statements  similar  to  the  following: 

"Quite  difficult  to  get  the  proprietors  of  the  smaller  establish- 
ments to  report  promptly;  railways  operating  in  interstate  com- 
merce are  exempt." — Vermont. 

"Act  applies  to  construction  of  railways  within  the  State, 
but  not  to  the  operation  of  same." — Washington. 

"  Only  accidents  causing  a  seven-day  loss  of  time  are  reportable. 
Without  doubt  many  accidents  are  not  reported." — Tennessee. 

"Not  applicable  to  business  or  employments  operating  in 
interstate  commerce." — Wyoming. 

"Bill  requiring  all  employers  to  report  industrial  accidents 
failed  of  passage  in  the  19 15  legislature.     Statistics  secured  are 

16 


EYE    HAZARDS    IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

from  employers  now  working  under  the  compensation  provisions 
of  Chapter  163,  Laws  of  1911." — New  Hampshire. 

"But  only  about  two-thirds  of  the  injuries  occurring  in  this 
state  are  protected  by  insurance  companies  privately  owned, 
or  by  the  State  Fund.  Again,  two  of  the  largest  groups  of  em- 
ployers are  engaged  in  interstate  commerce  and  agriculture,  and 
are  exempted  from  the  compensation  provisions  of  the  Act. 
Only  66.34  P^i"  cent,  of  the  injured  are  covered  by  private  or 
state  insurance.  Only  84.5  per  cent,  of  the  industrial  injuries 
in  California  are  covered  by  the  Act." — California. 

"Railroad  or  farm  accidents  are  not  included,  or  accidents  in 
shops  where  less  than  four  persons  are  employed." — Wisconsin. 

"A  large  number  of  employers  still  not  under  the  Act." — 
Maryland. 

"Only  5700  out  of  31,000  persons  operating  under  the  Act 
are  reporting  accidents." — Illinois. 

"Casual  laborers,  farm  and  railway  employes  excluded.  Act 
is  elective — many  employers  are  privately  insured." — Minne- 
sota. 

These  few  quotations  are  typical  of  exemptions  which  obtain 
in  other  states  as  well.  They  are  cited  merely  as  evidence  of 
the  conservative  nature  of  the  estimate  made  by  the  National 
Committee  for  the  Prevention  of  Blindness  that  200,000  eye 
accidents  in  industrial  occupations  occur  annually  in  the  United 
States — that  total  being  approximately  10  per  cent,  of  all  indus- 
trial accidents. 

In  Montana,  Minnesota,  Michigan,  West  Virginia,  Wis- 
consin, Washington,  and  Massachusetts,  accidents  resulting  in 
total  loss  of  sight  are  shown  to  have  been  58  out  of  a  total  of 
263  resulting  in  total  disability.  These  are  the  only  states  whose 
reports  make  possible  a  comparison  of  such  data. 

In  California,  Montana,  Minnesota,  Michigan,  Ohio,  Wis- 
consin, West  Virginia,  Washington,  New  York,  and  Massachu- 
setts, eye  accidents  resulting  in  permanent  partial  disability  are 
shown  to  have  been  1006  out  of  a  total  of  10,918  accidents  of  all 
kinds  which  caused  permanent  partial  disability.  On  this  basis 
the  percentage  under  this  classification  would  be  9.2,  per  cent,  for 
eye  accidents. 

2  17 


EYE  HAZARDS  IX  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

In  California,  Montana,  Minnesota,  Ohio,  Washington,  New 
York,  and  Massachusetts,  eye  accidents  which  have  produced  but 
temporary  disabiHty  are  shown  to  number  29,578  out  of  a  total 
of  320,526  accidents  under  the  same  classification — a  little  more 
than  9  per  cent. 

It  has  not  been  possible  to  ascertain  the  total  annual  award  in 
compensation  payments  to  those  who  have  been  the  victims  of 
industrial  eye  accidents.  Nor  can  the  loss  of  time  from  the 
injury  sustained  be  determined.  The  records  of  individual  cor- 
porations cannot  be  used  for  determination  of  the  desired  sta- 
tistics, because  of  the  varying  hazards,  exposures,  protection 
afforded,  or  other  contributory  issues  which  would  fail  to  coin- 
cide in  any  such  general  compilation. 

In  this  connection  the  attention  of  the  reader  is  called  to 
interesting  and  informative  statements  on  the  subject,  contained 
in  a  recent  government  publication,  ''The  Blind  Population  of 
the  United  States."  This  document  is  based  on  the  census  of 
1910. 

Many  statements  relative  to  the  causes  of  blindness  are  made 
in  that  publication,  with  some  comparative  data  regarding  indus- 
trial accidents  and  blindness  resulting  therefrom.  For  instance, 
the  1 9 10  figures  show  six  times  as  many  blind  persons  as  were  re- 
ported in  1850,  whereas  the  general  population  w^as  scarcely  quad- 
rupled during  the  intervening  period.  Each  decade  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  last  shows  an  increase  in  industrial  eye  accidents 
and  occupational  eye  diseases.  Again,  it  appears  that  59  per 
cent,  of  the  blind  population  is  located  in  the  New  England, 
Middle  Atlantic,  and  North  Central  States.  These  same  states, 
it  must  be  admitted,  hold  55  per  cent,  of  our  total  population, 
but  they  are  the  centers  of  a  much  higher  percentage  of  our  indus- 
trial activities. 

Furthermore,  at  each  census  in  recent  decades  the  number  of 
blind  males  has  been  considerably  in  excess  of  the  number  of 
blind  females — nearly  30  per  cent,  greater  in  19 10.  This  marked 
difference  cannot  be  attributed  to  a  great  preponderance  of  men 
in  the  general  population,  as  there  are  but  106  males  to  every  100 
females.  Rather  is  it  explained  by  the  fact  that  "certain  im- 
portant causes  of  blindness,   particularly  injuries  in  mine  ex- 

18 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

plosions  and  other  industrial  accidents,  are  causes  affecting  the 
male  population  almost  exclusively." 

The  period  between  1880  and  1900  was  one  of  great  industrial 
growth  in  this  country.  It  is  significant  that  there  was  also  a 
25  per  cent,  increase  in  blindness  during  those  years. 

On  page  98  of  ''The  Blind  in  the  United  States"  (the  complete 
Census  report  on  the  blind)  is  the  following  statement:  "The 
most  important  fact  brought  out  by  the  table  is  the  large  number 
of  cases  in  which  blindness  is  caused  by  injuries  in  accidents  or 
otherwise.  Of  the  total  number  of  blind  persons  who  returned 
special  schedules,  13.5  per  cent.,  or  more  than  one-eighth,  re- 
ported their  blindness  as  due  primarily  to  this  cause,  these  in- 
cluding all  who  lost  one  eye  through  injury  and  the  other  through 
sympathetic  inflammation.  As  the  conditions  preventing  an 
accurate  return  of  the  cause  of  blindness  would  presumably  not 
apply  to  cases  where  the  blindness  was  due  to  accidental  causes, 
the  figures  just  given  in  all  probability  afford  a  reasonably  ac- 
curate indication  of  the  relative  number  of  cases  in  which  blind- 
ness resulted  from  injury,  although,  as  the  enumerated  blind 
population  not  returning  schedules  was  made  up  largely  of  per- 
sons among  whom,  by  reason  of  sex,  age,  or  race,  the  number  of 
cases  of  accidental  blindness  was  likely  to  be  below  average,  it  is 
possible  that  the  percentage  given  above  may  to  some  extent 
overstate  the  facts." 

As  to  the  incidence  of  eye  accidents,  the  cases  of  blindness 
resulting  therefrom,  and  their  economic  significance,  it  would 
seem,  from  a  review  of  available  reports,  that  the  following  state- 
ments, the  absolute  accuracy  of  which  cannot  of  course  be  deter- 
mined, are  probably  approximately  correct: 

1.  Of   the   2,000,000  annual   non-fatal  accidents,   probably 

200,000  are  accidents  to  the  eyes. 

2.  Approximately  15,000  persons  in  the  United  States  are 
blind  today  as  the  result  of  accidental  injury  in  industrial 
occupations. 

3.  The  maintenance  of  these  blinded  artisans  during  the  re- 

mainder of  their  lives  will  cost  nearly  ten  million  dollars, 
which  expense  will  fall  in  large  part  on  relatives,  com- 
munity, or  state. 

19 


EYE  HAZARDS  IX  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

4.  The  actual  economic  loss  cannot  be  estimated,  and  the 
loss  to  the  unfortunate  person  whose  eyesight  is  destroyed 
is,  least  of  all,  a  matter  of  dollars  and  cents. 

From  these  statements  is  it  not  apparent  that  one  of  the  most 
important  industrial  problems  of  today  is  that  of  the  protection 
of  employes  from  accidents  that  will  destroy  or  greatly  impair 
vision? 

The  various  hazards  to  the  eyesight  of  industrial  workers  are 
found  chiefly  in  the  following  industries  and  occupations:  the 
manufacture  of  iron  and  steel;  machine  operations;  chipping; 
grinding  and  polishing;  riveting;  welding  and  cutting;  mining 
and  quarrying;  occupations  in  which  there  is  exposure  to  irri- 
tating and  poisonous  dusts,  fumes,  and  gases;  the  chemical  in- 
dustries and  occupations  involving  the  handling  of  acids  and 
chemicals;  metallurgic  operations  where  there  is  great  exposure 
to  intense  light  and  heat;  glass-making;  sand-blasting;  wood- 
working operations;  the  garment  trades  and  agricultural  pur- 
suits. These  are  not  cited  in  the  order  of  their  importance  as 
productive  of  eye  accidents,  neither  does  the  above  list  include 
all  the  hazardous  occupations  to  be  described  herewith.  Statis- 
tics which  would  permit  of  other  than  an  approximate  statement 
as  to  the  relative  importance  of  these  hazards  are  not  avail- 
able. It  will  doubtless  come  as  a  surprise  to  some  to  note  the 
exceedingly  large  number  of  eye  accidents  cited  in  the  section 
devoted  to  agricultural  occupations  (p.  106).  A  prominent  oculist 
who  has  made  an  especial  investigation  of  accidents  of  this  nature, 
and  who  has  seen  thousands  of  cases  for  which  some  agricultural 
employment  was  directly  responsible,  states  as  his  belief  that 
this  occupation  should  head  the  list  of  causes  responsible  for 
eye  accidents. 

On  the  following  pages  descriptions  are  given  of  the  dangers 
in  these  various  occupations,  with  recommendations  for  the  in- 
stallation of  protective  devices  or  for  such  changes  in  working 
conditions,  lighting  arrangements,  etc.,  as  will  prove  effective  in 
reducing  or  completely  eliminating  the  preventable  industrial  acci- 
dents to  eyes. 


20 


EYE  HAZARDS  IX  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

CHIPPING  OPERATIONS 

Case:  Anthony  Panfield,  a  wheel-shop  employe  at  Brooks  Works,  bought  a 
pair  of  goggles  at  a  ten-cent  store  because  they  were  lighter  than  the  ones 
furnished  by  the  company.  While  chipping  with  an  air  hammer  a  small  chip 
broke  a  lens  and  small  pieces  of  glass  struck  his  eye.  A  larger  chip  would  have 
destroyed  his  eye.  He  did  not  know  that  the  frames  of  goggles  must  be  rigid 
to  retain  the  broken  glass.  He  knows  now.  Let  us  furnish  you  your  goggles. 
They  cost  you  nothing. — Accident  Bulletin  No.  201  of  the  American  Locomotive 
Company. 

In  the  case  cited  above  appear  two  of  the  chief  hazards  to  eye- 
sight in  industrial  Hfe.  The  kind  of  work  in  which  the  employe 
was  engaged  provides  the  first.  His  carelessness  in  using  poor 
protection  for  his  eyes  is  the  second.  This  latter  problem  will  be 
discussed  in  a  subsequent  section. 


Fig. 


Protective  goggles  for  chippers,   showing  side  screens  and  frontal 
guard. 


The  possibility,  or  rather  probability,  of  eye  injuries  occur- 
ring from  flying  chips,  when  protective  goggles  are  not  worn  by 
the  chippers,  is  well  known.  The  dangers  incident  to  the  pene- 
tration of  the  eyeball  by  a  fine  sliver  of  steel,  or  especially  of 

21 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

brass  or  copper,  are  serious,  and  such  accidents  have  often  pro- 
gressed to  infection  and  loss  of  sight.  These  flying  chips  attain 
an  almost  unbelievable  velocity,  and  have  been  known  to  pene- 
trate the  eyeball  so  deeply  as  to  lodge  in  the  optic  nerve.  Ocu- 
lists frequently  are  called  upon  to  remove  chips  which  have 
lodged  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  eye. 

In  the  steel  industry  a  chipping  operation  frequently  respon- 
sible for  injuries  of  this  nature  is  the  removal  of  surface  cracks  or 
seams  from  the  cold  steel  blooms.  A  bloom  is  a  roughly  prepared 
mass  of  iron  intended  to  be  drawn  out  under  the  hammer  or  be- 
tween the  rolls  into  bars.  In  this  work  groups  of  employes 
frequently  work  toward  one  another  from  opposite  ends  of  the 
bloom.  In  one  plant  in  Buffalo  the  investigator  noted  more  than 
a  hundred  men  thus  working  together,  all  using  air-hammer 
chisels.  A  constant  fusillade  of  steel  chips  was  the  natural 
result.  Every  man  in  that  particular  group  of  one  hundred  was 
wearing  suitable  goggles  which  had  been  provided  by  the  com- 
pany. Men  who  work  at  the  rolls  of  a  blooming  mill  are  con- 
stantly exposed  to  injury  from  flying  scale,  and  should  be  pro- 
tected by  a  mask  made  of  fine  wire  netting. 

Recommendations:  The  use  of  goggles  is  the  most  effectixe 
means  of  preventing  eye  accidents  from  this  cause.  Inasmuch 
as  this  type  of  work  has  proved  so  exceedingly  productive  of 
eye  injuries,  and  because  it  is  frequently  turned  over  to  ignorant, 
unskilled  labor,  it  is  essential  that  educational  work  and  constant 
supervision  of  chipping  gangs  by  foremen  should  supplement  the 
provision  of  goggles. 

Goggles  provided  for  chippers  usually  have  side  screens,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  2,  for  the  deflection  of  chips  coming  from  a 
lateral  direction,  as  they  will,  especially  when  chippers  are  work- 
ing side  by  side  or  in  groups.  The  tendency  has  been  noted 
among  some  safety  directors  to  eliminate  these  side-pieces. 

As  they  contribute  to  the  steaming  of  goggles  and  provide 
additional  discomfort  because  of  their  weight  and  appearance,  it 
may  seem  advisable  to  some  to  center  safety  effort  toward  the 
constant  interposition  of  the  standing  chip-screen  between  ad- 
jacent workers.  The  elimination  of  the  side-screen  will  simplify 
the  chipper's  goggle,  and  the  use  of  the  standing  screen  will  offset 

22 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 


Fig.  3. — Chipping  screen.     American  Museum  of  Safety. 


Fig.  4. — Chippers — all  wearing  goggles.     New  Jersey  Zinc  Company. 

23 


EYE   HAZARDS    IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

the  danger  from  chips  which  may  be  flying  from  a  lateral  direc- 
tion. 

The  screen  guard  between  the  lenses  over  the  bridge  of  the 
nose  is  advisable,  and  goggles  should  fit  to  the  face  as  snugly  as 
possible  in  order  to  reduce  the  possibility  of  chips  flying  up  under 
the  glass  and  thus  causing  an  abrasion  or  penetrating  wound. 

Fig.  3  shows  an  approved  type  of  screen  in  use  to  offset 
dangers  from  chipping.  It  is  adjustable,  made  of  canvas,  burlap, 
or  wire  gauze,  and  is  potent  in  safeguarding  adjacent  workers. 
Even  greater  protection  should  be  afforded  for  eye  hazards  in- 
cident to  chipping  than  for  other  occupations,  because,  unlike 
the  steady,  one-direction  stream  of  particles  resulting  from  an 
occupation  such  as  emery  grinding,  the  flying  particles  of  metal 
driven  off  in  chipping  do  not  necessarily  stream  out  in  any  one 
direction.  Perhaps  because  of  their  cognizance  of  this  fact 
chippers  seem  to  be  more  ready  to  take  chances.  In  the  Buffalo 
survey  it  was  found  that  chipping  screens  were  used  in  but  very 
few  shops,  even  where  safety  work  along  other  lines  had  advanced 
to  a  high  degree  of  efficiency.  That  the  screens  which  were  in 
use  were  "doing  their  bit"  was  evidenced  by  the  infinite  number 
of  sharp  chips  found  clinging  to  the  burlap. 

In  certain  shops  it  was  found  that  the  soft  metal  chips  were 
first  broken  off  with  a  hammer,  instead  of  their  removal  being 
delayed  until  they  could  be  cut  off  entirely  with  the  chisel.  By 
this  procedure  there  was  avoided  the  hazard  from  the  tremendous 
velocity  given  the  chips  when  the  operation  is  done  with  the  air- 
hammer  chisel.  Moreover,  such  remnants  as  had  to  be  removed 
by  that  process  were  much  smaller  than  the  original  chip. 

MACHINE  OPERATIONS 

Case:  Harry  Collins,  of  Detroit,  Michigan,  wore  the  goggles  shown  in  Fig.  5. 
He  is  a  screw-machine  operator  and  was  working  on  a  malleable  casting  when 
the  accident  took  place.  His  obedience  to  the  rule  of  the  shop  saved  his  sight. 
— Hudson  Motor  Car  Company. 

Operations  involving  the  cutting  or  turning  of  metal  on  ma- 
chines, produce  flying  chips,  which  are  a  source  of  many  eye 
injuries.     In  the  turning  of  brass  at  high  speeds,  steel  shafting 

24 


EYE  HAZARDS  IX  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

and  axles,  and  in  machining  cast  iron,  this  danger  must  always 
be  taken  into  account.  In  the  machining  of  rough  castings  there 
is  also  the  hazard  from  flying  sand  which  has  adhered  to  the 
metal.  This  oftentimes  proves  as  great  a  menace  as  the  flying 
chips. 

Little  protection  was  evident  in  most  of  the  machine  shops 
visited  in  Buffalo.  In  some  instances  workmen  were  found  to 
have  taken  matters  into  their  own  hands.  In  a  number  of  shops 
they  had  rigged  up  a  protective  chip  screen  made  of  thin  sheet 
metal  which  was  fastened  to  the  tool  rest  by  a  piece  of  wire. 
These  amateurish  devices  frequently  are  the  cause  of  accidents 
of  various  kinds.     One  employe  who  had  used  such  a  "shield" 


Fig.  5. — Goggles  which  saved  the  sight  of  a  screw-machine  operator. 

told  of  how  it  had  caught  in  the  work  on  the  machine,  and  after 
revolving  a  few  times  at  high  speed,  flew  off,  and  inflicted  a  severe 
cut  on  his  hand. 

Fine-mesh  wire  screens  were  in  use  by  some  workmen  who 
were  turning  brass,  an  operation  which  produces  a  constant  run 
of  small  brass  particles.  These  screens  had  been  made  of  wire 
window  screen  and  were  but  loosely  fastened  to  the  tool  rest. 

In  one  small  shop  run  in  conjunction  with  a  large  foundry  it 
was  noticed  that  a  piece  of  cardboard  about  eight  inches  square 
had  been  placed  over  the  tool  of  an  engine  lathe,  a  small  hole 
having  been  made  in  the  cardboard  to  accommodate  the  tool. 
On  further  examination  it  was  found  that  only  a  few  moments 

25 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

before  the  operator  had  sustained  an  injury  which  resulted  in  a 
bad  bruise  where  a  large  chip  had  struck  him  in  the  face,  half 
an  inch  below  the  eye.  The  cardboard  shield  expressed  his  desire 
for  protection. 

Recommendations:  Attach  a  protective  guard,  properly  de- 
signed, made  of  good  material,  and  carefully  fitted  to  the  tool 
rest.  Crude  screens  made  and  put  in  place  by  the  workmen 
themselves  will  produce,  rather  than  reduce,  accidents. 


Fig.  6. — Guards  on  lathe  to  catch  steel  chips  from  tool.     Carnegie  Steel  Com- 
pany. 

The  guard  illustrated  in  Fig.  6  is  securely  fastened  to  the 
machine  and  performs  its  function  without  endangering  the 
operator. 

Another  type  of  guard  frequently  used  is  shown  in  Fig.  7. 
The  guard  is  of  glass  and  permits  ample  view  of  the  tool  and 
work.  It  can  be  thrown  out  of  position  when  fitting  up  work  in 
the  machine. 


26 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 


ABRASIVE  WHEELS 

The  statistics  compiled  by  casualty  companies  in  the  United 
States  indicate  that  in  recent  years  there  has  been  a  large  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  accidents  resulting  from  the  operation  of 
emery  wheels,  grindstones,  and  the  like.     The  increase  is  un- 


Fig.  7. — Glass  chip-shield  on  lathe.  Shield  is  supported  by  a  universal 
jointed  arm  secured  to  tool  carriage,  so  that  it  can  be  readily  adjusted.  United 
States  Steel  Corporation. 

doubtedly  due — (i)  To  the  larger  use  of  these  abrasives;  (2)  to 
the  failure  of  many  industrialists  to  provide  therefor  the  proper 
protective  devices;  and  (3)  to  the  failure  of  employes  to  use  such 
devices  when  grinding  wheels  have  been  equipped  with  them. 

There  are  few  factories  or  other  workplaces  which  are  not 
equipped  with  one  or  more  grinding  wheels,  used  for  rough  dress- 

27 


EYE   HAZARDS    IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

ing,  the  finishing  of  machine  parts,  poHshing,  buffing,  and  the 
Hke.  Emery  wheels  and  grindstones  are  the  ones  most  com- 
monly in  use.  The  word  "emery"  in  this  connection  is  fre- 
quently more  or  less  of  a  misnomer,  as  many  of  the  abrasive 
wheels  classified  under  that  name  are  not  made  of  emery,  but  of 
such  artificial  products  as  alundum,  carborundum,  or  cry  stolon. 
They  are,  however,  commonly  called  emery  wheels. 

The  hazards  incident  to  emery  grinding  are  those  due  (i) 
to  emery  dust,  (2)  fine  particles  from  the  metallic  surface  which 
is  being  ground  down,  and  (3)  flying  parts  of  a  broken  w^heel 
which  has  ruptured  because  of  an  accidental  blow^  the  fouling 
of  work  between  the  tool  rest  and  the  wheel,  improper  mounting, 
overspeed,  or  excessive  pressure  against  the  wheel. 

Accidents  from  these  causes  are  rarely  unavoidable,  and  the 
application  of  substantial  guards,  hoods,  and  exhaust  systems 
to  emery  wheels  and  grindstones,  with  the  wearing  of  goggles  by 
the  grinders,  will  reduce  to  a  minimum  accidents  of  this  nature. 

Recommendations:  Safety  hoods  are  essential  to  the  proper 
equipment  of  emery  wheels.  The  hood  should  be  substantially 
built,  and  of  such  design  and  strength  as  to  retain  the  parts  of  a 
wheel  which  ruptures.  The  wheel  should  be  entirely  contained 
in  the  hood,  except  for  such  portion  as  the  nature  of  the  work 
requires  to  be  exposed. 

If  for  any  reason  it  is  impractical  to  equip  the  wheel  with  a 
hood,  safety  flanges  should  be  used.  These  bind  the  wheel  on 
either  side,  and  are  adapted  for  either  straight  or  tapered  wheels. 
In  the  event  of  a  rupture  of  the  wheel,  the  parts  are  clamped  by 
the  flanges.  The  entire  surface,  however,  is  not  covered  by  the 
flanges,  and  for  this  reason  the  protection  afforded  is  not  so  com- 
plete as  that  given  by  a  hood.  The  use  of  both  flanges  and  hood 
will  give  the  maximum  protection.  Correct  dimensions  for 
flanges  to  be  used  on  different  sizes  and  styles  of  wheels  are  cited 
in  the  following  tables,  approved  by  the  National  Machine  Tool 
Builders'  Association  and  manufacturers  of  abrasive  wheels. 

The  matter  of  dust  removal  should  be  given  careful  atten- 
tion, as  constant  breathing  of  air  laden  with  emery  dust  is  in- 
jurious, and  there  is  a  cumulative  hazard  to  eyesight  from  the 
constant  scarring  of  the  cornea  by  these  fine  particles.     An  ex- 

28 


EYE  HAZARDS  IX  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 


haust  system,  carefully  planned  by  an  expert  in  that  line,  and 
approaching  the  dust  source  as  closely  as  possible,  should  be  in- 
stalled wherever  any  considerable  amount  of  grinding  is  done. 

DIMENSIONS  OF  TAPERED  FLANGES  AND  TAPERED  WHEELS 
WHERE  HOODS  ARE  NOT  USED  IN  CONJUNCTION  THEREWITH 
A — Maximum  flat  spot  at  center  of  flange. 
B — Flat  spot  at  center  of  flange. 
C — Minimum  diameter  of  flange. 
D — Minimum  thickness  of  flange  at  bore. 
E — Minimum  diameter  of  recess  in  taper  flanges. 
F — Minimum  thickness  of  each  flange  for  single  taper  at  bore. 


Diameter  of 
Wheel  in  Inches 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

6 

0 

I 

3 

H 

2 

^ 

8 

0 

I 

5 

H 

VA 

^ 

10 

0 

2 

6 

y^ 

4 

A 

12 

4 

4^ 

6 

H 

4   ^ 

H 

14 

4 

4K 

8 

H 

5i^ 

H 

i6 

4 

6 

10 

H 

7 

H 

i8 

4 

6 

12 

Va 

8 

I 

20 

4 

6 

14 

^ 

9 

I 

22 

4 

6 

16 

% 

loA 

iH 

24 

4 

6 

18 

H 

12 

iH 

26 

4 

6 

20 

H 

133^ 

iH 

28 

4 

6 

22 

H 

WA 

lA 

30 

4 

6 

24 

H 

16 

lA 

STRAIGHT  FLANGES  AND  STRAIGHT  WHEELS  USED  WITH 
PROTECTION  HOODS 


A 

B 

c 

z? 

Diameter  of  Wheel 

Minimum  Outside 

Minimum  Diameter 

Minimum  Thickness 

in  Inches 

Diameter  of  Flange 

of  Recess 

of  Flange  at  Bore 

6 

2 

I 

H 

8 

3 

2 

H 

10 

3A 

2A 

H 

12 

4 

2H 

A 

14 

4A 

3 

A 

16 

5A 

3>^ 

A 

18 

6 

4 

H 

20 

7 

4>^ 

H 

22 

lA 

5 

H 

24 

8 

5>^ 

H 

26 

8>^ 

6 

H 

28 

10 

7 

A 

30 

10 

7 

A 

Wheels  shall  never  be  run  without  flanges. 

Both  flanges  in  contact  with  the  wheels  shall  be  of  the  same  diameter, 
whether  straight  or  tapered. 

29 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

In  connection  with  the  problem  of  safeguarding  grinding 
wheels  the  following  statement  from  one  of  the  largest  manu- 
facturers of  safety  guards  is  of  interest: 

"While  the  chances  of  eye  injuries  are  not  quite  so  great 
when  a  grinding  wheel  is  protected  by  means  of  a  suitable  guard, 
nevertheless  goggles  should  always  be  worn  by  grinding  machine 
operators,  with  the  possible  exception  of  certain  kinds  of  wet 
precision  grinding,  for  example,  automobile  crankshafts.  When 
these  are  being  ground,  the  point  of  contact  between  the  grinding 
wheel  and  the  work  is  always  under  a  large  stream  of  water, 
which  has  sufficient  mass  and  velocity  to  carry  down  into  the 
tank  of  the  grinder  any  particles  which  otherwise  might  cause 
eye  injuries." 

Goggles  for  work  of  this  nature  need  be  neither  heavy  nor 
cumbersome.  The  thickness  of  the  lens  should  be  based  on  the 
kind  of  grinding  in  which  the  workman  is  engaged.  The  light- 
weight type  should  not  be  used  except  for  work  where  fine  par- 
ticles are  thrown  off.  Side  screens  on  goggles  are  efficacious 
where  protection  is  necessary  to  offset  the  danger  of  chips  from 
grinding  at  adjacent  machines. 

A  light,  convenient  carrying  case  for  the  goggles  should  be 
provided — in  fact,  everything  done  which  will  prevent  any  em- 
ploye's leaving  his  goggles  in  his  locker  or  which  will  give  him 
any  excuse  for  not  using  them.  As  soon  as  the  glass  has  become 
seriously  pitted  from  the  flying  emery  particles,  new  glass  should 
be  inserted,  so  that  the  worker's  vision  may  not  be  interfered 
with.  These  pitted  glasses — sometimes  so  scarred  that  they  look 
like  ground  glass — are  an  excellent  indication  of  what  might  be 
the  result  upon  the  delicate  surface  of  the  eyes  were  not  the  pro- 
tective goggles  in  continual  use. 

As  has  been  frequently  stated  by  oculists  in  discussing  the 
results  of  this  hazard,  flying  emery  particles  are  white  hot,  so 
that  when  they  strike  the  eyeball  they  are  likely  to  burn  their 
way  into  the  tissues,  thus  making  their  removal  more  difficult. 
Though  the  great  heat  may  cauterize  the  edges  of  the  wound, 
there  results  an  abrasion  which  makes  it  far  more  easy  for  bacteria 
to  enter  and  bring  about  serious  infection.     The  illustration  in 


30 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

Fig.  8  indicates  the  temperature  of  the  emery  particles,  so  white- 
hot  as  to  fuse  them  fast  to  the  lens  of  the  protective  goggle. 

In  numerous  plants  the  bad  practice  exists  of  hanging  a  pair 
of  goggles  beside  a  grinding  wheel  for  the  use  of  any  employe  who 
may  use  the  wheel.  The  promiscuous  interchange  of  goggles 
exposes  workmen  to  communicable  diseases  of  the  eye,  which 
are  easily  transferred  in  this  way.  Occasionally  such  a  pair  of 
goggles  is  known  to  have  been  last  worn  by  a  man  who  had 
**sore  eyes."  The  factor  responsible  for  the  inflammation  may 
not  be  known  even  to  that  employe  himself.     Any  other  work- 


Fig.  8. — Emery  particles  fused  to  goggles. 

man  who  wears  these  goggles  may  later  develop  trachoma  or 
some  other  serious  eye  disease. 

Glass  guards  over  the  tool-rest  are  in  use  to  a  certain  extent, 
but  in  the  opinion  of  many  safety  engineers  they  are  not  satis- 
factory, and  do  not  make  for  complete  safety  or  efficiency. 

The  following  suggestions  as  to  the  use  of  emery  wheels 
should  be  carefully  observed.  They  are  found  in  ''Universal 
Safety  Standards,"  compiled  under  the  direction  of  the  Work- 
men's Compensation  Service  Bureau  of  New  York: 

"Do  not  operate  an  emery  wheel  without  protection  for  the 
eyes.     Do  not  operate  any  emery  wheel  faster  than  the  speed 

31 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 


recommended  by  the  manufacturer.     Be  sure  that  the  speed  is 
right  before  mounting  wheel." 

"Be  sure  that  the  tool-rest  on  the  emery  wheel  is  not  below 
the  center  of  the  wheel,  and  have  the  rest  as  close  to  the  wheel  as 
possible.     Wheel  should  be  running  true  and  without  vibrations. 


Fig-  9- — A  serious  or  fatal  accident  from  the  breaking  of  this  wheel  was  pre- 
vented by  the  hood  which  inclosed  it.     Oliver  Mining  Company. 

If  not,  call  attention  of  the  foreman  and  have  wheel  fixed  before 
operating." 

"Always  keep  bearing  of  grinder  well  supplied  with  oil.     A 
hot  arbor  may  expand  and  break  wheel." 

"Be  sure  that  your  wheel  is  running  at  normal  speed  before 
starting  to  grind." 

32 


EYE   HAZARDS    IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

As  regards  speed,  carefully  compiled  tables  based  on  the 
diameter,  composition  of  wheel,  nature  of  work,  and  so  forth, 
have  been  made  available,  and  are  usually  provided  by  manu- 
facturers of  emery  wheels.  In  general,  a  speed  of  5000  peripheral 
feet  per  minute  is  recommended  as  the  standard  for  vitrified  and 
silicate  straight  wheels,  tapered  wheels,  and  shapes  other  than 
those  known  as  cup  and  cylinder  wheels,  which  are  used  on  bench, 
floor,  swing  frame,  and  other  machines  for  rough  grinding.     For 


■          i        *   i  1    iW     \    I             1    1   ■  »  1 

a 

Fig.  10. — Motor-driven  emery  wheels,  equipped  with  plate-glass  shields, 
hoods,  and  exhaust  system  for  removal  of  dust.  United  States  Steel  Corpora- 
tion. 


these  latter  a  speed  of  4500  peripheral  feet  per  minute  is  recom- 
mended as  standard.* 

Grindstones  when  run  at  excessive  speed  present  similar  haz- 
ards as  do  grinding  wheels.  '*  The  safe  allowable  peripheral  speed 
is  somewhat  variable,  depending  upon  the  grade  of  grit  and  the 

*  Technical  data  on  this  subject,  covering  all  phases  of  the  safeguarding 
of  abrasive  wheels,  may  be  found  in  numerous  publications  devoted  entirely 
to  the  subject.  An  excellent  presentation  is  that  contained  in  "Grinding 
Wheels,"  Travelers  Insurance  Company,  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  in  "Safety  as 
Applied  to  Grinding  Wheels,"  The  Norton  Company,  Worcester,  Mass. 

3  33      . 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

hardness  of  the  stone.  The  nature  of  the  stone  is  indicated  by 
the  locaHty  in  which  it  is  quarried.  The  two  best  known  and 
most  widely  used  varieties  are  the  Ohio  and  Huron  grindstones, 
the  latter  being  safe  for  somewhat  higher  speeds  than  the  former, 
owing  to  their  greater  hardness  and  fineness  of  grain.  Ohio 
stones  should  never  be  run  with  a  rim  velocity  in  excess  of  3000 
feet  per  minute,  and  should  ordinarily  be  kept  under  2500  feet 
per  minute.  Huron  stones  may  be  allowed  3500  feet  per  minute, 
but  it  is  better  to  limit  them  to  3000  feet  per  minute  maximum. 
Unknown  varieties  of  stone  should  be  limited  to  2500  feet  per 
minute."* 

Finally,  grinding  machines  should  be  so  placed  in  relation  to 
natural  and  artificial  lighting  as  to  eliminate  any  danger  of  glare. 
Localized  lighting  may  sometimes,  with  wise  installation,  be 
employed  to  good  advantage  if  adjusted  so  that  the  light  source 
is  hidden  from  the  range  of  vision  of  the  operator  and  other 
workers  who  may  be  stationed  at  nearby  points.  Even,  ade- 
quate general  illumination  is,  however,  far  preferable. 

Frequently  the  most  serious  hazard  is  apparent  in  those  shops 
where  but  occasional  use  of  grinding  wheels  is  required,  where  the 
emery  wheel  is  used  perhaps  for  but  a  few  moments  in  an  entire 
day,  to  touch  up  some  dull  tool  or  to  grind  off  a  burr  from  a  cast- 
ing. In  shops  where  emery  wheels  are  in  constant  use,  naturally 
the  severity  of  the  hazard  is  appreciated  far  more.  It  is  a  serious 
mistake  to  disparage  the  risk  in  a  small  shop  or  in  any  shop  where 
but  occasional  grinding  is  done. 

In  Buffalo  industries  visited  it  was  found  that  wherever 
workers  were  engaged  in  steady  grinding,  with  but  one  plant  as 
exception,  goggles  were  in  use.  Frequently  a  plate-glass  screen 
or  other  safeguard  was  also  attached  to  the  grinder. 

SAND-BLASTING 

The  necessity  for  sand-blasting  metal  castings,  stone  surfaces 
of  buildings,  glass  surfaces,  et  al.,  has  developed  one  of  the  most 
dangerous  of  the  dust  hazards  to  vision,  and  to  general  health  as 
well. 

In  foundries  the  burnt  sand  and  scale  must  be  removed  from 
*  "Grinding  Wheels,"  Travelers  Insurance  Company. 
34 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

castings.  This  was  originally  done  by  hand  scrubbing,  steel 
brushes  being  used  by  the  workmen  engaged  in  the  task.  This 
process  was  unsatisfactory  both  from  the  standpoint  of  result  and 
because  of  the  lack  of  protection  against  dust.  Better  methods 
have  gradually  been  developed,  until  now  the  operation  of  sand- 
blasting may  be  accomplished  practically  without  menace. 

For  small  and  medium-sized  castings  the  mechanism  of  the 
tumbling  mill  has  been  called  into  play  and  the  cleaning  accom- 
plished safely  and  satisfactorily.  But  there  are  many  castings 
which,  because  of  size  or  other  reasons,  cannot  be  cleaned  by  such 
means.  Many  castings  are  too  large  to  be  put  in  tumbling  mills, 
while  the  fragility  and  fine  surfaces  of  others  may  also  be  the 
reasons  for  using  some  other  process. 

Sand-blasting  of  large  areas  is  generally  accomplished  by  the 
use  of  the  hose  type  of  apparatus,  which  permits  of  a  stream  of 
sand  being  shot  with  great  force  against  the  casting  or  other  ob- 
ject, the  stream  being  directed  and  controlled  by  an  operator. 

Men  engaged  in  this  work  must  be  afforded  protection  of  the 
eyes  and  face,  for  the  sharp  particles  of  sand  are  driven  with  such 
force  against  the  surface  operated  upon  that  they  rebound  many 
feet,  and  the  surrounding  air  is  constantly  filled  with  dust  pro- 
duced both  by  the  driven  sand  and  by  that  which  is  removed 
from  the  surface  being  cleaned. 

Fig.  1 1  shows  a  protective  helmet  for  sand-blast  operators. 
It  covers  the  entire  head  and  fits  down  over  the  shoulders  snugly. 
Because  the  particles  of  silicious  sand  which  is  used,  would,  in 
their  rebounding,  rapidly  pit  the  glass  surface  of  goggles,  rendering 
them  useless  in  a  very  short  time,  the  eyes  of  the  workman  must 
be  safeguarded  in  another  way.  Consequently  the  helmets  in 
use  for  sand-blasting  have  "windows"  made  of  fine  wire  mesh, 
mica,  or  celluloid  through  which  the  operator  may  watch  his 
work.  Though  sand-blasters  often  equip  themselves  with  home- 
made helmets,  far  more  satisfactory  results  are  secured  by  pro- 
viding them  with  the  commercial  product  securable  from  any 
one  of  a  number  of  manufacturers.  They  may  be  equipped  with 
a  hose  for  connection  to  a  compressed-air  system,  in  order  to  pro- 
vide a  constant  supply  of  fresh  air.  Where  such  equipment  is 
used,  care  should  be  exercised  lest  too  strong  pressure  of  moist 

35 


EYE   HAZARDS    IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

air  prove  in  itself  a  hazard  to  the  health  of  the  worker.  The  air 
should  be  delivered  within  the  helmet  at  only  a  slight  pressure 
and  be  as  free  from  moisture  as  possible. 

W.  Gilman  Thompson,  in  his  publication,  ''Occupational 
Diseases:  their  Causation,  Symptoms,  Treatment,  and  Pre- 
vention," describes  one  method  of  protection  as  follows:  **The 
operator  stands  in  a  cabinet  directing  the  sand-blast  away  from 


Fig.  II. — Hood  used  by  men  sand-blasting  steel  ore  cars, 
and  Northern  Railway. 


Duluth,  Missabe 


himself  toward  the  casting.  Over  his  head,  at  an  angle  of  45 
degrees,  a  strong  blower  fan  directs  a  stream  of  air  also  upon  the 
casting  with  such  force  that  the  dust  of  both  sand  and  metal  is 
blown  downward  toward  the  opening  of  a  large  exhaust  tube 
just  above  the  floor.  In  this  way  a  strong,  continuous  draft 
blows  the  dust  away  from  the  operator  and  out  of  the  cabinet 
through  the  aspirator  duct,  which  is  connected  with  a  powerful 
exhaust  fan." 

36 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

In  "Safety  in  the  Foundry,"  Magnus  W.  Alexander  gives  a 
comprehensive  description  of  the  two  general  types  of  sand-blast 
rooms  which  may  be  provided  for  work  of  this  nature  in  foundries. 
''The  less  expensive  type  consists  of  an  ordinary  dust- tight  in- 
closure  with  a  solid  floor  of  wood,  concrete,  or  iron.  The  dust  is 
sucked  out  by  means  of  a  fan  through  openings  suitably  located 
in  the  outer  wall  or  connected  with  a  pipe  which  would  carry  the 
dust  outside,  while  fresh  air  is  drawn  into  the  room  through 
louvers  placed  in  the  opposite  wall  or  in  the  door,  or  the  door 
opening  is  only  partially  covered  with  a  heavy  canvas  curtain. 
The  sand  must  be  shoveled  up  from  time  to  time  to  be  cleaned 
and  reused. 

"The  more  expensive  type  has  grated  openings  in  the  floor 
through  which  heavy  sand  and  scale  fall,  while  the  fine  dust  is 
drawn  through  the  grated  openings  by  means  of  a  suitable  ex- 
haust; in  this  case  the  intake  of  fresh  air  is  through  the  ceiling 
by  means  of  louvers  or  other  openings.  Mechanical  means  re- 
move the  sand  from  the  hoppers  under  the  floor  openings,  sift  it, 
and  return  it  for  use  to  the  sand-blast  tanks.  The  construction 
of  the  room  is  generally  the  same  for  both  types.  The  rooms  are 
usually  lighted  artificially  by  electric  lamps  placed  behind  heavy 
plate  glass  or  wire  screen  to  protect  the  lamps.  Natural  lighting 
through  windows  is  employed  only  in  rooms  where  the  windows 
can  be  so  located  in  the  walls  or  the  ceiling  as  to  place  them  out 
of  range  of  the  sand-blast — otherwise  the  window-glass  would  be 
broken  or  would  wear  out  quickly." 

In  the  making  of  pottery  and  china  the  sand-blast  is  used  to 
brush  and  scour  the  ware.  The  eye  hazard  from  irritating  dust 
in  this  occupation  may  be  offset  if  the  work  is  held  in  a  box-like 
hood  with  small  openings  through  which  the  workman  puts  his 
hands  and  arms.  These  cases  are  equipped  with  exhaust  fans 
which  carry  off  the  dust.  Glass  windows  enable  the  operator  to 
watch  his  work,  though  these  are  likely  to  become  pitted  and 
opaque  very  rapidly  unless  the  suction  is  sufficiently  strong  to 
carry  off  the  dust-particles  immediately. 


37 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

"MUSHROOMED"  TOOLS 

Case:    In  the  accident  records  of  the  American  Locomotive  Company,  New 
York,  appears  the  following: 

"August  17th,  F.  Van  DeBogarts,  boilermaker  at  Schenectady,  was  hold- 
ing a  fuller  which  his  helper  was  striking  with  hammer.  Head  of  fuller  was 
badly  battered  and  a  piece  of  scale  broke  off,  hitting  him  in  the  eye." 

In  this  example  appears  another  of  the  chief  hazards  to  eyesight 
— the  danger  from  flying  particles  driven  ofif  from  the  burred  or 
"mushroomed"  edges  of  hand  tools.  Swages,  flatters,  fullers, 
breaking-down  tools, 'chisels,  and  other  tools  often  have  their 
heads  beaten  down  to  a  "  mushroomed  "  condition.  Tools  which 
have  been  used  until  the  heads  have  spread  and  split  are  a  con- 
tinual menace.  Each  blow  upon  such  a  mushroomed  surface 
may  cause  chips  to  fly  off  with  sufflcient  force  to  destroy  an  eye, 
or  even  to  pass  through  clothing  and  into  the  flesh. 

"Mushrooming"  may  occur  on  the  finest  hand-forged  tools, 
as  well  as  on  those  with  cast  heads  commonly  provided  in  cheap 
hammers.  Less  care  to  secure  uniform  results  can  be  taken  in 
the  manufacture  of  the  latter.  They  are,  therefore,  in  all  prob- 
ability more  hazardous,  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
hazard  from  mushroomed  heads  is  not  essentially  due  to  inferior 
quality  alone. 

An  injury  of  this  nature  when  caused  by  a  small  particle  of 
steel  may  seem  of  little  moment  at  the  time  of  occurrence.  Even 
when  the  particle  has  perchance  penetrated  to  the  interior  of  the 
eye,  its  presence  and  effect  may  be  at  first  so  non-apparent  that 
it  may  take  considerable  persuasion  to  make  the  victim  realize 
that  the  accident  has  potentialities  of  a  most  serious  nature 
which  demand  immediate  and  scientific  attention  by  an  ocu- 
list. 

Serious  infections  may  result  due  to  injuries  of  this  nature 
when  the  penetrating  particle  has  carried  with  it  dirt  or  germs 
into  the  interior  of  the  eye,  and  it  is  of  paramount  importance 
that  any  injury  of  this  kind  should  be  considered  serious  and 
worthy  of  immediate  attention. 

The  location  of  particles  of  iron  and  steel  can  often  be  accom- 
plished only  by  means  of  the  use  of  the  x-ray.     The  withdrawal 

38 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 


Fig.   12.— "Mushroomed"  tools — unsafe  to  use.     United  States  Steel  Cor- 
poration. 


Fig.  13. — Haab  magnet  for  withdrawing  steel  chips  from  the  eye. 

39 


EYE   HAZARDS    IX   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

of  a  steel  sliver  can  frequently  be  effected  only  by  the  use  of  an 
electric  magnet.     (See  Fig.  13.) 

Such  procedure  can  be  adopted  only  for  such  particles  as  are 
capable  of  being  magnetized.  Consequently,  penetrating  in- 
juries caused  by  copper,  brass,  lead,  and  many  alloys  are  much 
more  dangerous  than  from  iron  and  steel.  Dr.  Nelson  M.  Black, 
in  his  brochure  entitled  "The  Eye  in  Industrial  Accidents," 
states  that  in  such  cases  it  is  often  necessary  to  remove  the  in- 
jured eyeball  in  order  to  save  the  other  eye,  as  the  irritation  set 
up  is  frequently  transferred  to  the  good  eye,  and  thus,  through 
sympathetic  inflammation,  leads  on  to  blindness.  The  good  eye 
may  be  affected  at  any  time  from  a  few  weeks  to  thirty  or  forty 
years  after  the  injury. 

Recommendations:  Constant  watchfulness  on  the  part  of 
workmen  and  foremen  is  essential  in  order  that  hammering  tools 
may  be  kept  properly  dressed.  Regular  weekly  inspection  of 
tools  should  be  provided.  The  burred  edges  should  then  be  re- 
moved by  breaking  down  or  by  grinding  or  both.  A  frequent 
procedure  is  to  heat  the  tool  and  then  remove  the  burred  edges 
by  dressing. 

In  this  connection  Beyer,  in  "Industrial  Accident  Preven- 
tion," states:  " The  heat  treatment  of  hammering  tools  is  worthy 
of  special  consideration.  If  they  are  hardened  slightly,  the 
tendency  to  'mushroom'  is  materially  reduced.  Care  must  be 
taken,  however,  to  avoid  getting  the  tool  too  hard,  as  it  then  be- 
comes brittle,  and  pieces  may  break  off  from  the  head  when  it  is 
apparently  in  perfect  condition.  There  is  a  point  where  the  tool 
is  neither  too  hard  nor  too  soft,  but  no  definite  standard  of  tem- 
perature can  be  laid  down,  since  different  grades  of  iron  require 
different  treatment.  By  practical  tests  an  experienced  black- 
smith should  be  able  to  determine  when  the  right  condition  is 
reached  for  the  particular  stock  on  which  he  is  at  work.  For 
heavy  hammers  (those  weighing  20  pounds  or  over)  it  will  be 
advantageous  to  make  the  striking  face  rounded  or  convex. 
This  tends  to  center  the  blow  and  prevent  the  hammer  from 
twisting  or  turning  in  the  hands  of  the  man  using  it.  Such 
twisting  is  liable  to  occur  with  a  flat-faced  hammer,  if  it  does  not 
strike  fairly." 

40 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

The  recommendations  of  the  National  Safety  Council  (Bulle- 
tin No.  317)  are  excellent  in  their  systematization  of  procedure 
for  the  prevention  of  accidents  from  this  source,  and  for  the 
elimination  of  chances  of  forgetfulness  on  the  part  of  foreman  or 
workman.     They  are  as  follows: 

"i.  Establish  a  regular  tool-room  for  a  certain  number  of 
employes. 

"2.  A  competent  workman  should  be  placed  in  charge  of  this 
tool-room.  His  duties  should  consist  of  keeping  an  ac- 
curate record  and  seeing  that  all  tools  are  dressed,  ground, 
and  properly  repaired.  One  man  should  assume  the  re- 
sponsibility of  safe  tools  for  the  employes. 

''3.  Each  tool  taken  from  the  tool-room  by  an  employe  should 
be  recorded  with  a  brass  check — this  check  to  contain  the 
number  of  tools  assigned  to  that  employe. 

"4.  The  employe  should  return  tools  when  through  with 
them,  or  account  for  them  at  least  once  a  week.  Such 
tools  as  air  hammers,  electric  machines,  etc.,  should  be 
returned  each  evening  for  oiling,  testing  for  grounds,  etc." 

RIVETING 

Case:  $20,000  for  an  eye.  . .  .  An  action  in  which  he  seeks  to  recover  $20,000 
for  the  loss  of  sight  of  his  left  eye  was  filed  in  the  United  States  District  Court 

this  morning  by  R P of  this  city  against  the railroad,  by  whom  he 

was  employed  as  the  operator  of  a  triphammer.  On  September  28th,  the 
plaintiff  says  he  was  engaged  in  removing  a  rivet  from  the  truck  of  a  railroad 
car  and  was  using  an  automatic  hammer  or  air  gun.  While  so  employed,  he 
said  the  rivet  flew  out  and  struck  his  left  eye,  breaking  his  glasses  and  piercing 
his  eye.  He  claims  that  the  machine  was  defective  and  that  he  was  not  work- 
ing in  the  proper  light. — Buffalo,  New  York,  Commercial,  May  17, 1916. 

In  car  building  and  other  steel  structural  work  the  dangers 
attendant  upon  reaming  and  riveting  require  constant  super- 
vision of  employes  so  engaged,  and  the  provision  of  safeguards 
for  the  prevention  of  such  accidents  as  might  otherwise  occur. 
In  riveting  especially,  eye  accidents  must  be  guarded  against, 
and  in  breaking  down  steel  structures  the  cutting  of  rivet  heads, 
bolts,  et  cetera,  is  even  more  hazardous. 

Occasionally  the  valve  in  the  air  hammer  sticks  or  breaks,  and 
when  hammer  is  removed  from  the  rivet,  the  plunger  may  fly  up- 
ward and  strike  the  bucker  in  the  face,  unless  he  has  taken  the 

41 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 


Fig.  14. — Bucker's  face  should  be  averted  when  hammer  man  is  driving  upper 
cut  rivets.     Haskell  and  Barker  Car  Company. 


Fig-  15- — Unsafe  practice  of  only  partially  covering  rivet  head  with  dolly-bar. 
Haskell  and  Barker  Car  Company. 

42 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

precaution  to  always  turn  his  face  to  one  side  when  the  hammer 
man  is  driving  upper  cut  rivets  (Fig.  14). 

In  Fig.  15  is  illustrated  the  danger  to  which  a  bucker  exposes 
himself  in  case  he  covers  only  part  of  the  rivet  head  with  his 
dolly-bar,  in  the  expectation  that  the  jarring  of  the  hammer  will 
bring  the  bar  completely  over.  The  rivet  head  should  always 
be  entirely  covered,  for  if  it  is  not,  the  bucker  stands  a  good 
chance  of  being  shot  by  the  rivet  jumping  out  of  the  hole  when 
the  force  of  the  hammer  is  applied. 


Fig.  16. — Cutting  rivet  heads. 


In  cutting  off  rivet  heads  the  force  applied  results  in  their 
flying  through  the  air  with  intense  velocity,  and  unless  care  is 
exercised,  the  flying  head  may  cause  serious  injury  to  the  ham- 
mer man  or  to  some  adjacent  worker.  Several  groups  of  men 
are  often  found  engaged  in  cutting  rivets,  working  in  close  prox- 
imity to  one  another,  and  thus  increasing  the  danger.  Although 
in  the  case  cited  the  victim's  goggles  failed  to  preserve  his  eye- 
sight, this  is  but  one  casualty,  whereas  thousands  of  cases  occur 
where  the  employes  save  their  sight  by  wearing  goggles. 

In  the  railway  shops  and  in  other  places  in  Buffalo  where  this 

43 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

type  of  work  was  observed  it  was  noted  that  most  of  the  w^orkmen 
had  been  equipped  with  goggles.  Many  of  them,  however,  were 
not  using  them. 

Recommendations :  The  provision  and  enforced  use  of  strong 
goggles,  with  side  screens,  will  usually  prevent  injury  which 
might  otherwise  result  from  flying  rivet  heads. 

A  rivet-head  catcher,  consisting  of  a  basket  made  of  wire 
netting,  on  a  long  handle,  has  been  used  effectively  in  preventing 
accidents  from  this  cause.  As  the  rivet-head  flies  off,  it  is  caught 
in  the  wire  basket,  which  is  handled  by  the  cutter's  helper. 

RADIATIONS  FROM  INTENSE  LIGHT  AND  HEAT 
SOURCES 

Numerous  inquiries  have  been  received  by  the  author,  origi- 
nating from  safety  engineers  who  are  seeking  information  as  to 
the  effects  of  radiant  energy  upon  the  eye.  The  following  para- 
graphs are  included  herewith  not  as  any  original  contribution  to 
the  subject,  but  rather  as  an  abstract  of  the  most  recent  findings 
concerning  possible  hazards  to  eyesight  from  the  radiations  of 
intense  light  and  heat  sources.* 

With  the  colors  of  the  visible  spectrum — red,  orange,  yellow, 
green,  blue,  and  violet — all  are  familiar.  These  colors  are  pro- 
duced by  a  mixture  of  vibrations  or  waves  in  the  ether,  which, 
according  to  their  length,  give  us  the  various  hues.  We  say  that 
an  object  is  red  not  because  it  actually  is  red,  but  because,  when 
seen  by  daylight,  it  reflects  or  transmits  only  the  long  rays,  which 
in  the  average  person  excite  the  sensation  of  red.  If  seen  by 
light  of  another  wave  length,  its  color  would  be  entirely  dif- 
ferent. 

But  there  are  other  waves  besides  those  which  can  thus  be 
seen.  Some  of  those  other  waves  are  longer  than  the  red  which 
borders  the  visible  spectrum.     They  are  designated  as  the  "  infra- 

*  One  of  the  most  recent  and  inclusive  publications  on  the  subject  is  that 
entitled  "The  Pathological  Effect  of  Radiant  Energy  on  the  Eye,"  by  F.  H. 
Verhoeff,  M.D.,  Pathologist  and  Ophthalmic  Surgeon,  Massachusetts  Charit- 
able Eye  and  Ear  Infirmary,  Boston,  and  Louis  Bell,  Ph.D.,  Consulting  En- 
gineer, and  Past  President,  Illuminating  Engineering  Society.  It  is  largely 
on  the  findings  of  these  investigators  that  the  following  treatment  of  this  sub- 
ject is  based.  ' 

44 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

red  "  rays  and  are  felt  as  *'  heat."  On  the  other  side  of  the  spec- 
trum are  Hkewise  waves  other  than  the  visible  violet.  Those  are 
the  shorter  ones,  called  the  **  ultra-violet "  rays.  It  has  been  be- 
lieved that  both  the  infra-red  rays  and  the  ultra-violet  rays  could 
exert  a  very  injurious  action  on  the  eye. 

For  comparative  purposes  the  measurement  of  these  wave 
lengths  is  given.  The  metric  units  will  be  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, /x  denoting  the  micron,  equal  to  one-thousandth  of  a  milli- 
meter, the  fxiJi,  equal  to  one-millionth  of  a  millimeter.  As  will 
be  shown,  only  waves  within  certain  measurements  may  be  harm- 
ful, hence  the  necessity  for  specifying  thus  fully. 

Verhoeff  and  Bell  find  that  ''from  the  standpoint  of  effects  upon 
the  eye  the  ultra-violet  region  may  be  divided  into  two  sharply 
separated  portions,  one  of  which  produces  abiotic  effects  while 
the  other  does  not."  (For  general  purposes  the  definition  of  the 
word  "abiotic"  contained  in  the  quotation  above  is  "injurious"  or 
"harmful,"  as  designating  the  effect  upon  living  matter  of  the  short 
waves  of  light.  It  must  be  distinguished  from  the  "thermic"  effect 
of  light,  although  this,  of  course,  may  also  be  destructive  to  life.) 

"It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  ultra-violet  rays  from  305  fifx 
to  395  MM  are  not  injurious,  while  those  from  305  hijl  to  200  fxfjL 
are,  and  while  those  305  ijljjl  in  length  show  but  evanescent  effects, 
for  shorter  wave  lengths  the  injurious  effects  increase  with  con- 
siderable rapidity." 

In  what  media,  therefore,  do  these  shorter  rays  exist,  and  to 
what  extent  are  they  harmful?  The  ultra-violet  rays  exist  in 
daylight,  in  artificial  illuminants,  and  in  processes  involving 
intense  light  and  heat,  such  as  arc  welding,  oxy-acetylene  and 
oxy-hydrogen  welding,  furnace  and  other  operations  in  which 
molten  metals  are  concerned. 

The  possibility  of  injury  from  the  ultra-violet  rays  in  sunlight 
need  not  be  discussed  here,  save  to  state  that  "  the  abiotic  energy 
in  the  solar  spectrum  is  a  meager  remnant  between  wave  lengths 
295  fxfi  and  305  iJLii,  aggregating  hardly  a  quarter  of  i  per  cent,  of 
the  total.  At  high  altitudes  and  in  clear  air  it  is  sufficient  to 
produce  slight  abiotic  effects,  such  as  snow-blindness,"  which, 
however,  occurs  only  with  long  exposures  under  very  favorable 
circumstances. 

45 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

ULTRA-VIOLET  RAYS  IN  ILLUMINANTS 

The  experiments  of  Verhoeff  and  Bell  regarding  the  possible 
injurious  effect  of  ultra-violet  rays  as  found  in  ordinary  com- 
mercial illuminants  cover  the  whole  range  of  incandescent 
lamps,  both  gas  and  electric,  the  ordinary  mercury  arcs,  and  the 
ordinary  Cooper  Hewitt  tube,  flames,  and  arc  lamps  of  various 
sorts.  The  wave  lengths  for  even  the  highest  temperature  of 
these  sources  are  not  shorter  than  300  mm>  which  length  is  but 
barely  under  that  of  305  jjlijl,  at  which  injurious  effects  begin  to 
be  at  all  apparent.  The  injurious  radiations  furnished  by  even  the 
most  powerful  of  them  are  too  small  in  amount  to  produce  danger 
of  photophthalmia  under  ordinary  working  conditions,  even  when 
accidentally  used  without  their  globes.  The  glass  inclosing  globes 
used  with  all  practical  commercial  illuminants  are  amply  sufficient 
to  reduce  any  injurious  radiation  very  far  below  the  danger-point. 

Statements  which  have  been  made  to  the  author  by  leading 
ophthalmologists  would,  however,  indicate  that  the  excessive 
exposure  to  the  intense  light  used  in  taking  motion  pictures  in- 
doors sometimes  leads  to  photophthalmia,  with  intense  discom- 
fort resulting  temporarily.  Occasionally  there  appear  sensational 
reports  of  cases  of  blindness  resulting  from  such  exposure,  but  so 
far  as  we  have  been  able  to  ascertain,  these  have  been  greatly 
exaggerated,  and  no  permanent  damage  has  been  so  effected. 

Artificial  illuminants  under  any  practical  conditions  of  use 
expose  the  eye  to  much  less  severe  radiation  in  this  part  of  the 
spectrum  than  does  ordinary  daylight,  and  these  radiations  are, 
as  indicated  in  the  foregoing,  for  the  most  part  arrested  by  ordi- 
nary commercial  glass,  such  as  lamp  chimneys  and  incandescent 
bulbs.  Ultra-violet  rays  are  also  arrested  by  the  cornea,  vitre- 
ous humor,  and  the  lens  of  the  human  eye,  and  so  do  not  reach 
the  deeper  structures  at  all — offsetting  the  possibility  of  perma- 
nent damage  being  effected. 

Artificial  illuminants  may  prove  very  tiresome  through  the 
sharp  contractions  of  the  pupil  which  they  produce,  and  through 
the  premature,  though  generally  temporary,  exhaustion  of  the 
retina,  but,  generally  speaking,  intense  light  results  in  fatigue 
and  inefficiency  rather  than  demonstrable  harm. 

46 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

Disturbance  of  color  vision,  persistent  and  annoying  after- 
images may  be  expected,  but  Verhoeff  and  Bell  indicate  their 
belief  most  clearly  in  the  statement  "as  regards  definite  patho- 
logical effects  or  permanent  impairment  of  vision  from  the  ex- 
posure to  the  luminous  rays  alone,  we  have  been  unable  to  find 
either  clinically  or  experimentally  anything  of  a  positive  nature. 

"Experiments  on  animals  and  on  the  human  subject  as  well 
prove  that  the  retina  may  be  flooded  for  an  hour  or  more  with 
light  of  extreme  intensity  (not  less  than  50,000  lux)  without  any 
sign  of  permanent  injury.  Only  when  the  concentration  of  light 
involves  enough  heat  energy  to  produce  definite  thermic  lesions 
is  the  retina  likely  to  be  injured." 


RADIANT  ENERGY  IN  ARC  WELDING  AND  IN  MOLTEN 

METAL 

The  operations  listed  in  the  following  table  *  are  among  the 
most  prominent  of  those  wherein  workmen  are  exposed  to  radia- 
tion which  might  have  a  harmful  effect  on  vision  unless  protection 
through  colored  goggles  is  afforded. 


Group 

Process 

Approximate  Temperature 

Open-hearth  steel  .  . . 

Charging  machine 

3400°  F. 

Steel  pourers 

2800°  F. 

Platform  men 

3000°  F. 

Melters 

2800°  F. 

Crucible  steel 

Melting  floor 

3400°  F. 

Hand  pouring 

2800°  F. 

All  steel  pouring 

2800''  F. 

Bessemer  steel 

Pulpit  operators 

3600°  F. 

Blowing  steel 

3600°  F. 

Pouring  in  molds 

2800°  F. 

Blast  furnace  steel  .  . 

Tapping 

2800°  F. 

Tuyeres 

3500°  F. 

Wrought  iron 

Puddling  furnace 

2800°  F. 

Furnaces 

Gas  heating 
Electric  heating 

2500°  F. 
5000°  F. 

Large  electric  heating 

6000°  F. 

Welding 

Oxy-acetylene  cutting 
Oxy-acetylene  welding 

4000°  F. 
4350°  F. 

Light  spot  welding 

Heavy  spot  welding 

Iron  arc  welding 

5500°  F. 

Carbon  arc  welding 

6450°  F. 

Lap-weld 

*  "Safety,"  Special  Supplement,  May,  191 7. 
47 


EYE    HAZARDS    IN    INDUSTRIAL    OCCUPATIONS 

After  exposure  of  the  eye  to  injurious  radiations,  there  is  a 
latent  period  before  any  effects  become  perceptible.  This  period 
in  a  general  way  varies  with  the  severity  of  the  exposure,  but  is 
usually  apparent  within  twenty-four  hours.  Modern  processes 
of  welding,  as  included  in  the  foregoing  table,  involve  the  appli- 
cation of  intense  heat  concentrated  for  the  liquefaction  of  the 
metals,  which   thus  mix — and   unite  as  they  cool.     The   electric 


Fig,  17. — Arc  welding. 

arc,  the  oxy-acetylene  torch,  and  the  oxyhydrogen  flames  are 
welding  media  against  the  radiations  of  which  workmen  should 
always  be  protected. 

Regarding  permanent  damage  to  the  eye  from  the  ultra- 
violet waves  which  are  emitted  even  from  these  processes,  it 
would  seem  that  many  statements  which  are  gross  exaggerations 
have  obtained  credence,  whereas,  so  far  as  effecting  any  perma- 

48 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

nent  damage,  these  rays  cannot  be  held  responsible  therefor. 
In  fact,  seldom  is  there  anything  more  than  a  mild  conjunctivitis 
produced  which  disappears  in  a  day  or  two. 

The  infra-red  rays  (of  long  wave  length)  are  prominent  in 
such  sources  as  molten  metal  and  molten  glass,  but  "infra-red 
rays  have  no  specific  action  on  the  tissues  analogous  to  that  of 
abiotic  rays.  Any  effect  due  to  them  is  simply  a  matter  of  ther- 
mic action,  and  such  rays  are  in  the  main  absorbed  by  the  media 
of  the  eye  before  reaching  the  retina."  All  of  which  leads  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  deleterious  results  which  have  been  noted 
are  the  heat  effect  without  regard  to  wave  length.  The  results 
produced  by  excessive  heat  may  be  in  the  form  of  lens  changes  so 
frequently  seen  as  cataract  among  glass-blowers,  and  described 
more  fully  on  pages  66  and  67.  Again,  the  cornea  may  be 
affected,  and  permanent  injury  to  the  iris  and  retina  be  accom- 
plished, though  the  latter  only  under  extreme  conditions. 

Arc  welders  must  be  protected  not  only  from  the  intense  light 
and  heat,  but  also  from  the  fine  particles  which  fly  off  from  the 
electrode.  There  is  more  or  less  tendency  to  oxidation  and 
formation  of  cinder,  and  the  imprisoned  air,  bursting  its  way  out 
of  the  contact  surface,  may  be  the  cause  of  just  as  serious  an  in- 
jury as  w^ere  the  cinders  of  the  former  hand  process  of  welding. 

Case:  Charlie  Biehler  and  John  Grohol  had  been  working  together  for  twelve 
years  at  the  Pittsburgh  Plant  of  the  American  Locomotive  Company.  Both 
men  were  skilled  in  erecting  shop  work,  and  had  goggles  and  had  used  them. 
Biehler  was  caulking  an  electric  weld.  A  small  particle  of  iron  broke  off  and 
hit  Grohol  in  the  right  eye.  As  the  Company's  Safety  Bulletin  on  the  case 
reads:  "Had  his  goggles  been  on,  this  bulletin  would  not  have  been  issued. 
The  Company  employed  specialists  to  save  his  eye,  but  science  failed. 
Men!  ! !  Profit  by  Grohol's  misfortune.  Wear  your  goggles  and  don't  take 
the  chance.    Grohol  is  now  blind  in  one  eye." 

There  are  certain  strains  produced  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
weld  irrespective  of  whatever  careful  attention  may  have  been 
paid  to  the  heating  of  the  metals.  In  order  to  relieve  these 
strains  it  is  customary  to  hammer  all  welds  immediately  or  as 
quickly  as  the  hardening  process  will  permit,  the  idea  being  to 
expand, the  hot  metal  at  the  same  rate  at  which  it  is  contracting. 
Welds  that  are  not  hammered  may  show  microscopic  checks  and 
4  49 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

are  of  low  tensile  strength.  When  the  operator  first  starts  to 
hammer  his  weld  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  surplus  metal  and 
slag  which  is  forced  aside  by  the  blow  of  his  hammer,  and  after 
the  metal  solidifies  there  is  also  considerable  scale  formed,  which, 
with  the  continued  hammering,  will  fly  in  all  directions. 

Recommendations:  Welding  and  cutting  by  high  tempera- 
ture media  should  be  done  in  a  room  separated  from  other  work- 
places. This  segregation  confines  the  risk  to  the  welders  and 
cutters.  So  far  as  isolation  is  concerned,  dependence  should  not 
be  placed  upon  the  canvas  curtain  "w^alls"  seen  occasionally  in 
use  for  this  purpose.  Wear  and  tear  will,  within  a  short  time, 
make  such  curtains  practically  worthless  as  a  means  of  protect- 
ing other  workmen  from  the  glare. 

The  use  of  goggles  will  offset  the  hazards  enumerated,  and 
will  eliminate  danger  from  splashes  of  molten  metal,  flying  sparks, 
cinders,  etc. 

There  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  need  for  providing  employes  with 
colored  goggles  which  will  protect  their  eyes  from  the  radiations 
from  superheated  metals  and  high  temperature  welding  media, 
irrespective  of  whether  or  not  the  results  from  such  exposure 
w^ould  otherwise  prove  permanent  or  but  temporary.  Such  severe 
discomfort  may  follow  a  very  brief  exposure,  that  protection  is 
essential.  Without  it  there  result  marked  inflammation  of  the 
mucous  membranes  of  the  eyes,  annoying  after-images,  light- 
flashes,  headaches,  and  temporary  blindness,  with  consequent  loss 
of  time  and  wages.  The  permanent  effects  resulting  therefrom 
have  already  been  described. 

Goggles  in  various  dark  colors  are  very  generally  made  use  of, 
though  frequently  but  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  ab- 
sorptive qualities  of  the  glass.  Dark-blue,  smoke,  and  red  glasses 
are  often  employed.  Unfortunately,  these  colors  are  far  from 
being  effective. 

That  which  is  most  frequently  in  evidence  is  the  cobalt  blue, 
which  may  be  cited  as  a  typical  example  of  improper  color  for  the 
purposes  for  which  it  is  intended.  It  gives  but  a  hazy  view  of  the 
furnace  interior  and  molten  metal,  and  is  not  effective  in  absorbing 
those  radiations  which  are,  at  least,  excessively  fatiguing  to  the 
eye. 

50 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 


Fig.  1 8. — Mask  used  by  electric  welders  and  scrap  burners.  Made  of  sheet 
brass  and  goggles.  Weight  is  carried  on  shoulders  by  means  of  the  wire  stirrup. 
National  Tube  Company. 

51 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  while  clear  glass  is  46  times  more 
transparent  to  visible  light  than  is  cobalt-blue  glass,  yet  the  latter 
is  more  transparent  to  the  ultra-violet  rays  (the  invisible  radia- 
tions) than  is  clear  glass  of  the  same  thickness. 

The  requirements  of  goggles  for  protection  in  these  operations 
are  that  they  shall  provide  sufficient  reduction  of  the  intensity  of 
the  light,  be  effective  in  absorbing  the  ultra-violet  rays,  keep  the 
eye  cool,  and  transmit  as  much  as  possible  of  the  visible  spectrum 
without  color  distortion.  That  the  color  of  the  goggle  itself  be 
inconspicuous  is  an  advantage — though  of  least  importance. 

Valuable  data  on  this  subject  are  given  in  a  recent  publication 
entitled  "Glasses  for  Protecting  the  Eyes  from  Injurious  Radia- 
tions," by  W.  W.  Coblentz  and  W.  B.  Emerson  (Technologic 
Paper  No.  93,  United  States  Bureau  of  Standards,  Washington). 

Data  are  given  by  these  investigators  showing  that,  of  the 
infra-red  rays  (heat-rays)  emitted  by  a  furnace  heated  to  1000° 
to  1100°  C.  (i)  about  99  per  cent,  are  obstructed  by  "gold-plated  " 
glasses,  (2)  about  95  per  cent,  by  sage-green  or  bluish-green 
glasses,  (3)  about  60  to  80  per  cent,  by  very  deep  black  glasses, 
and  (4)  about  60  per  cent,  by  greenish-yellow  glasses.  At  higher 
temperatures  these  data  would  be  somewhat  different. 

For  working  molten  quartz,  operating  oxy-acetylene  or  electric 
welding  apparatus,  searchlights,  or  other  intense  sources  of  light, 
it  is  important  to  wear  the  darkest  glasses  one  can  use,  whether 
black,  green  (not  including  gold-plated  glasses),  or  yellowish- 
green,  in  order  to  obstruct  not  only  the  infra-red  but  also  the  visi- 
ble and  the  ultra-violet  rays.  For  working  near  furnaces  of  mol- 
ten iron  or  glass  if  considerable  light  is  needed  a  light  bluish- 
green  or  sage-green  glass  is  advised. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  ' '  gold-plated  glasses. ' '  These  appear 
to  be  the  most  effective  means  yet  devised  for  shielding  the  eyes 
from  the  infra-red  rays.  Regarding  them,  Coblentz  and  Emerson 
state : 

"Metals  are  the  most  opaque  substances  known  for  infra-red 
radiations,  while  in  the  visible  spectrum  gold  has  a  region  of  low 
reflectivity  and  great  transparency  in  the  region  of  0.5  m-  This 
property  would  naturally  suggest  itself  as  a  means  of  eliminating 
all  the  infra-red  by  covering  white  spectacle  glass  with  a  thin 

52 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

layer  of  gold.  The  high  reflective  power  (metallic  reflection  of 
60  to  80  per  cent,  as  compared  with  the  vitreous  reflection  of 
about  4  per  cent,  from  glass)  makes  it  desirable  to  mount  these 
gold-plated  glasses  in  a  hood  ('goggles')  which  prevents  reflec- 
tion of  light  from  the  rear  surface  of  the  film  into  the  eye." 

Unfortunately,  the  cost  of  such  glasses  puts  them  as  yet  rather 
out  of  the  range  of  availability  for  industrial  purposes,  and, 
moreover,  the  effects  produced  in  looking  through  them  "did  not 
appear  quite  so  pleasing  as  through  the  sample  of  Crookes'  sage- 
green  ferrous  glass.  In  the  latter  the  transmission  is  twice  as 
great  (44  per  cent.)  in  the  visible  with  but  little  addition  of  infra- 
red." 

Verhoeff  and  Bell  state  that  for  "protection  of  the  external 
eye  against  extreme  heat  few  glasses  except  such  special  ones  as 
have  recently  been  devised  by  Crookes  are  very  effective." 

Crookes  developed  numerous  shades  which  are  effective  in 
varying  capacity.  The  glass  which.  In  his  own  opinion,  provides 
most  satisfactory  protection  is  sage-green  In  color,  which,  In  a 
plate  2  mm.  In  thickness,  is  opaque  to  98  per  cent,  of  the  heat 
radiation,  absorbs  the  ultra-violet  rays  beyond  any  possibility  of 
their  proving  objectionable,  and  at  the  same  time  transmits 
27.6  per  cent,  of  the  Incident  light.* 

Aside  from  the  Crookes  glass,  the  grayish-green  glass  de- 
veloped by  Fleuzal,  the  amber,  Hallauer,  Euphos,  Enlxanthos, 
Hygat,  and  No  viol — all  of  which,  under  the  names  designated, 
approximate  one  another  in  their  absorptive  powers,  and  are 
effective  in  cutting  off  the  ultra-violet.  They  run  in  color  from 
a  yellowish  to  a  somewhat  bluish  green,  and  occur  In  various 
shades.  The  deeper  shades  of  any  of  them  cut  off  the  spectrum 
completely  at  about  the  beginning  of  the  ultra-violet  and  weaken 
It  well  Into  the  violet. 

The  choice  between  them  lies  mainly  In  the  matter  of  taste 
as  regards  their  particular  color  and  absorption  In  the  visible 
part  of  the  spectrum.  The  yellow-green  would  seem  to  be  the 
one  most  satisfactory  from  the  latter  standpoint. 

For  further  necessary  protection  where  exposure  to  'heat  Is 

*  "The  Preparation  of  Eye-preserving  Glass  and  Spectacles,"  Sir  William 
Crookes,  O.M.,  F.R.S. 

53 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

great  and  continuous  there  Is  a  wide  assortment  of  masks  designed 
for  that  purpose.  The  one  illustrated  on  page  48. is  made  of 
composition  board  with  aluminum  parts,  and  fits  on  small  hinges 
and  pivots  over  a  circular  band  surrounding  the  head.  This 
arrangement  enables  the  worker  to  throw  the  mask  back  without 
removing  it  should  he  be  temporarily  engaged  in  work  not  re- 
quiring eye  protection.  The  intent  of  the  V-shaped  prow  is  to 
deflect  heat  waves  and  gases. 

For  outdoor  welding,  such  as  work  on  steel  rails,  there  is  a 
simple  protective  device  in  the  shape  of  a  small  box  beneath 
which  the  work  is  accomplished.  Correctly  tinted  glass  windows 
in  the  box  enable  the  welder  to  safely  watch  his  work  and  protect 
passers-by  from  injury  from  the  light  source  or  from  flying  chips 
and  sparks. 

MOLTEN  METAL  HAZARDS 

Case:   Threatened  with  the  loss  of  his  sight,  Lee  C ,  thirty-one  years  old, 

is  at  the  M General  Hospital,  suffering  from  severe  burns  about  his  face. 

C is  an  employe  of  the  M S Company.  While  at  work  yester- 
day morning  some  molten  steel  ran  into  some  wet  sand  and  flared  up  in  his 
face. — Baltimore,  Md.,  American,  October  6,  igi6. 

Case:  A  serious  accident  befell  A G an  employe  of  the  S Com- 
pany last  Saturday  afternoon,  and  he  is  now  at  the  W Sanitarium.     G 

worked  in  the  molding  department  of  the  foundry  and  some  hot  metal  being 
poured  into  a  form,  spattered  up  and  struck  him  in  the  left  eye.  His  physi- 
cian fears  that  the  sight  is  permanently  destroyed. — Catskill,  New  York,  Mail, 
March  21,  1916. 

As  indicated  by  the  cases  quoted,  one  of  the  chief  hazards 
to  eyesight  in  metallurgic  operations  is  that  due  to  burns  from 
the  splashing  of  the  molten'  metal.  As  has  been  mentioned  in 
the  preceding  section,  exposure  to  the  intense  light  and  heat  of 
metal  in  its  liquid  state  may  also  be  productive  of  disability, 
which,  while  not  permanent  in  nature,  will  cause  considerable 
discomfort  and  loss  of  time. 

To  the  layman  the  processes  involved  in  the  manufacture  of 
iron  and  steel  may  seem  so  complex  as  to  discourage  even  a  cur- 
sory investigation.  For  all  such  there  is  strongly  recommended 
the  reading  of  a  recent  publication  entitled  "  The  Story  of  Steel," 
issued  by  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation.     It  may  fairly 

54 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 


dl 

.%^:f-^"' 

'■<j! 

Fig.  19. — These  goggles  saved  a  workman's  sight  when  hot  babbitt  he  was 
pouring  exploded.     American  Bridge  Company. 


Fig.  20. — Pouring  babbitt — single  hand  ladle.     Carnegie  Steel  Company 

55 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

be  said  that  few  popular  novels  portray  a  more  fascinating  and 
readable  romance  than  is  given  therein. 

As  an  introduction  to  this  section  on  eye  hazards  in  metal- 
lurgic  operations,  certain  excerpts  from  the  publication  referred 
to  are  reproduced,  with  the  permission  of  the  Steel  Corporation. 
These  quotations  will,  it  is  hoped,  indicate  the  magnitude  of  the 
safety  problem  which  confronts  the  industrialist  and  engineer 
in  that  industrial  field. 

THE  BLAST  FURNACE 

Iron  ore,  as  it  is  found  in  the  ore  beds,  is  composed  of  iron  and 
oxygen,  with  certain  impurities.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  blast 
furnace  to  rob  the  ore  of  its  oxygen,  flux  out  the  impurities,  and 
leave  the  iron.  The  early  makers  of  iron  discovered,  doubtless 
by  accident,  that  if  they  sprinkled  iron  ore  upon  red-hot  coals, 
raked  other  red-hot  coals  over  the  ore,  then  blew  air  upon  the 
fire,  the  ore  melted  and  hard  and  durable  substance  was  formed. 
Even  now,  in  almost  as  crude  fashion,  the  South  Africans  make 
steel.  They  fashion  a  plate  of  clay  pierced  with  holes  and  bake  it 
hard.  Then  upon  the  plate  they  place  ore  and  charcoal,  kindle 
a  charcoal  fire  underneath,  and  blow  it  with  bellows  until  the  ore 
melts  and  trickles  down  through  the  holes  into  a  clay  container, 
where  fire  is  blown  upon  it  until  the  smelting  process  is  complete 
and  it  is  ready  to  be  hammered  into  rude  tools  and  weapons. 

On  the  same  principle  is  the  modern  blast  furnace — the  mon- 
ster that  eats  up  2000  tons  of  raw  materials  a  day.  All  the  iron 
that  is  used  for  steel  has  to  pass  through  the  blast  furnace,  where 
it  is  smelted  with  coke  and  limestone. 

Most  of  the  accidents  that  made  the  steel  industry  notorious 
in  the  early  days  occurred  near  the  blast  furnaces,  but  safety 
devices  have  so  effectively  chained  these  monsters  that  nowadays 
there  are  few  accidents.  The  furnace  cannot  now  spew  its  hot 
contents,  even  when  a  fresh  charge  of  raw  material  is  being 
crammed  down  its  great  throat,  for  a  piece  of  hollow  iron  like  a 
huge  bell  is  lowered  down  its  throat  while  its  mouth  is  being 
filled,  and  a  second  bell  is  clapped  over  its  mouth  before  the  first 
one  is  loosened  to  allow  the  charge  to  drop  down  into  the  huge 
maw. 

In  the  old  days  the  molten  metal  occasionally  ate  through 
the  shell  of  the  furnace  and  dropped  down  to  touch  water  and 
was  hurled  in  every  direction  by  the  force  of  its  self-generated 
steam.  The  modern  blast  furnace  has  a  water-cooled  shell 
which  reduces  the  danger  of  these  breakouts;  and  at  all  points, 

56 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

especially  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  furnace,  are  guards  and 
safety  devices  that  practically  eliminate  the  possibility  of  acci- 
dent. 

A  blast  furnace  is  operated  continuously.  Work  may  slow 
down — may  cease — in  other  departments  of  a  steel  mill;  but 
day  in  and  day  out  the  blast  furnace  keeps  at  its  work  of  turning 
out  pig  iron,  so  named  because  the  molten  metal  used  to  be  run 
out  from  the  furnace  into  large,  trough-like  molds  called  "sows," 
from  which  it  trickled  into  smaller  molds  or  "pigs,"  and  was  left 
to  cool.  Nowadays,  unless  used  directly  in  the  steel  plant,  the 
metal  flows  into  molds  fastened  to  an  endless  conveyor  and  run 
through  water  to  cool  it,  or  it  is  left  to  cool  by  natural  process. 

Huge  stacks  called  "stoves"  heat  the  air  for  the  furnaces. 
They  are  lOO  feet  high  and  something  over  20  feet  in  diameter, 
lined  throughout  with  brick.  Gas  from  the  blast  furnace  is 
burned  in  the  combustion  chambers  of  these  stoves.  The  heated 
products  of  combustion  pass  through  the  checker  work  for  an 
hour  or  more,  heating  the  bricks  to  their  full  heat-absorbing 
capacity;  then  the  gas  is  turned  off,  and  air  blast,  supplied  by 
the  blowing  engines  of  the  blast  furnace,  is  passed  through  these 
stoves  in  the  opposite  direction. 

This  air  absorbs  the  heat  from  the  bricks  and  then  enters  the 
blast  furnace  through  pipes  called  Tuyeres,  at  a  temperature  of 
1200°  to  1400°  F.  In  the  furnace  this  heated  air  passes  over  the 
coke,  burning  it  and  creating  an  intense  heat  in  the  hearth  or 
bottom  part  of  the  furnace.  The  oxygen  is  taken  from  the  ore, 
the  carbonic  acid  from  the  limestone,  the  limestone  and  ore  are 
fluxed,  and  the  metallic  iron  trickles  down  into  the  hearth  through 
the  slag  which  is  formed  in  this  process. 

Every  four  or  five  hours  the  tapping  hole  is  opened  and  the 
liquid  iron  is  tapped  out  of  the  hearth  and  run  into  huge  ladles 
in  which  it  is  carried  to  the  steel  furnace  or  cast  in  the  pig  ma- 
chine. 

It  is  hard  to  realize  how  much  air  a  blast  furnace  consumes. 
Each  of  those  at  Gary,  Indiana,  consumes  36,500  feet  of  air  a 
minute.  Yet  the  air  that  is  fed  to  a  furnace  must  be  carefully 
controlled — quite  as  carefully  as  the  ore  and  coke  and  limestone, 
because  a  very  slight  thing  will  upset  the  digestive  processes  of  a 
furnace.  To  '  illustrate,  occasionally  a  small  lump  will  fasten 
itself — "freeze"  or  harden — on  the  inside.  The  lump  catches 
other  particles,  which  adhere  to  it  until  a  great  mass  is  formed. 
The  air  coming  from  the  stoves  must  then  be  heated  to  a  very 
high  temperature,  to  assist  the  efforts  made  to  melt  out  this 
semiliquid  mass. 


'57 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

THE  OPEN-HEARTH  FURNACE 

At  the  first  sight  an  open-hearth  furnace  looks  Hke  a  baker's 
oven.  But  when  the  visitor  puts  on  a  pair  of  colored  spectacles 
such  as  the  workmen  use  and  peers  through  the  water-cooled 
door,  he  finds  himself  looking  across  a  great  pool,  35  to  40  feet 
long  and  15  feet  wide,  filled  with  bubbling,  white-hot  metal, 
tinted  here  and  there  with  delicate  shades  of  pink  and  blue.  It 
seems  more  like  candy  cooking  than  like  steel,  but  during  the 
ten  to  twelve  hours  of  cooking  in  the  intense  heat  of  the  gas  the 
mass  is  converted  into  steel. 

Metallurgists  experimenting  with  iron  ore  long  ago  found  that 
a  mixture  of  raw  iron,  limestone,  and  scrap  iron  heaped  on  a 
shallow  hearth  and  heated  to  a  high  temperature  by  gas  flames 
would  at  the  end  of  six  hours  be  smelted  into  steel — very  good 
steel,  too. 

This  open-hearth  process  is  called  an  "open-hearth  heat," 
and  each  time  such  a  heat  is  tapped  the  world  is  richer  by  50  to 
100  tons  of  steel. 

This  explains  why  so  little  scrap  iron  is  found  lying  about  a 
plant.  The  scrap  is  used  in  the  open-hearth  process — not  to 
get  rid  of  it,  but  because  it  is  needed.  Before  being  sent  to  the 
furnace  all  the  large  scrap  is  gathered  into  a  space  enclosed  by 
heavy  screening  where  a  huge  ball  is  raised  high  by  a  powerful 
magnet,  released  and  dropped  down  upon  the  pieces  of  old  iron 
and  steel,  smashing  them  into  convenient  sizes  for  the  furnaces. 
The  broken  scrap  is  then  heaped  on  small  cards  with  removable 
boxes  and  started  for  the  open-hearth  furnace.  From  another 
part  of  the  plant  yard  a  trainload  of  ladles  filled  with  molten  iron 
is  started  toward  the  mixer — the  gathering  point  from  the  hot 
metal  as  it  comes  from  the  blast  furnaces.  Into  this  receptacle, 
shaped  like  a  huge  teapot,  the  heats  from  the  different  furnaces 
are  poured.  Here  they  are  equalized — made  uniform  in  qual- 
ity— before  being  poured  out  again  through  the  giant  spout  into 
ladles  and  borne  by  cranes  to  the  open-hearth  furnaces. 

Meanwhile,  on  the  open-hearth  floor,  a  supply  of  finely  ground 
dolomite  has  been  piled  before  the  long  line  of  furnace  doors,  and 
as  soon  as  a  heat  has  been  discharged,  laborers  shovel  in  the 
dolomite,  which  melts  like  glass  and  fills  any  holes  that  may  have 
been  burned  through  the  lining,  forming  a  solid  bottom  for  the 
fresh  charge.  Then  the  charging  begins.  First,  from  the  train- 
load  of  scrap  which  has  been  brought  alongside  the  furnaces  an 
electric  charging  machine  lifts  box  after  box,  pushing  its  burden 
through  the  door  and  tilting  the  contents  into  the  furnace.  Then 
an  overhead  crane  brings  from  the  mixer  a  huge  ladle,  swings  it 

58 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 


aloft,  and  pours  the  molten  iron  into  the   furnace.     And  from 
time  to  time  during  the  charging  a  laborer  throws  in  a  shovelful 


Fig,  21. — Pouring  from  bottom  ladle.     Only  the  operator  is  wearing  protective 

goggles. 

of  limestone.  What  one  really  sees  bubbling  on  the  surface  of  the 
furnace  is  the  melting  limestone  gathering  to  itself  the  impurities 
of  the  steel  and  forming  them  into  slag. 

59 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

Steel,  as  one  sees  it  in  finished  tools  or  rails,  undergoes  many 
changes  between  the  ore  and  the  finished  product.  The  blast 
furnace  smelts  and  refines  the  ore;  but  it  is  still  iron  as  it  comes 
from  the  blast  furnace,  with  4  per  cent,  of  carbon  and  0.5  to  1.5 
per  cent,  each  of  manganese  and  silicon.  These  ingredients,  and 
certain  amounts  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  are  considered  im- 
purities, though  carbon  in  limited  quantities  gives  hardness,  and 
manganese  toughness,  to  steel.  The  percentage  of  impurities 
can  be  well  regulated  in  an  open-hearth  heat.  It  cannot  be 
regulated  as  fully  in  the  Bessemer  process.  It  is  regulated  in 
both  cases  at  the  end  of  the  heat  by  adding  the  necessary  amount 
of  carbon,  manganese,  etc.,  either  in  the  molten  or  solid  state. 
This  explains  the  additions  of  Spiegel,  ferro-manganese,  ferro- 
silicon,  etc. 

To  watch  the  tapping  of  an  open-hearth  "heat"  is  an  in- 
teresting experience.  At  the  rear  of  the  furnace  is  a  great  open 
space.  Overhead  is  an  electric  crane,  equipped  with  an  extra 
steel-and -asbestos  shelter  having  an  extra  power  controller,  for 
the  craneman's  use  in  case  of  accident,  for  all  these  operations 
are  most  carefully  safeguarded.  At  the  side  farthest  from  the 
rear  of  the  furnace  is  a  pouring  platform,  upon  which  the  molten 
metal  is  poured  into  molds  from  the  ladles  carried  to  the  plat- 
form by  the  overhead  crane. 

One  of  these  great  ladles  is  brought  to  the  rear  of  the  furnace 
when  a  charge  is  ready  for  tapping.  While  it  waits  for  its  load  a 
gas-flame  is  kept  burning  inside  it,  to  dry  out  every  trace  of 
moisture.  More  than  once  a  few  drops  of  water  under  molten 
steel  have  caused  a  fatal  explosion.  When  the  time  comes  for 
tapping,  a  workman,  quick  and  sure  as  a  cat,  poises  himself  in  a 
niche  provided  for  the  purpose  and  jams  a  steel  bar  through  a 
clay-plugged  hole  at  the  base  of  the  furnace.  Out  tumbles  the 
steel  into  the  waiting  ladle.  Scattering  a  trail  of  many  colored 
sparks  and  glowing  like  a  stream  of  gold,  it  lights  up  the  whole 
mill.  Higher  and  higher  it  mounts,  until  the  ladle  is  full  and  the 
slag,  loaded  with  impurities,  overflows  and  congeals  on  the  out- 
side. Then  the  craneman  lowers  his  chains,  and,  catching  the 
ladle  by  the  lugs,  swings  it  over  the  pouring  platform,  where 
other  men  tap  it  and  pour  the  contents  into  ingot  molds  mounted 
upon  cars. 

THE  ELECTRIC  FURNACE 

It  is  the  squat  little  electric  furnace  that  makes  the  best  steel 
of  all,  because  it  can  be  controlled  so  accurately.  The  high- 
grade  alloy  steels — vanadium,  chrome-nickel,  and  manganese 
steel — come  from  this  little  fifteen-ton  furnace,  which  usually  has 

60 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

half  of  a  great  building  to  itself,  while  In  the  other  half  other 
furnaces  are  busy  preparing  the  metal  to  feed  it.  A  crane  pours 
the  metal  into  the  furnace.  Gas  is  not  used  for  heating;  an 
electric  arc  does  the  work  instead.  This  arc  Is  struck  between 
the  metallic  charge  and  large  electrodes  capable  of  conducting 
tremendous  currents,  which  are  passed  through  the  top  of  the 
furnace  down  to  the  surface  of  the  slag.  The  electric  circuit  of 
which  they  are  a  part  is  completed  through  the  metallic  charge  in 
the  furnace,  so  that  an  arc  is  formed  at  the  point  of  contact  of  the 
electrodes  with  the  slag.  ''The  rest  Is  not  difficult,"  says  the 
furnace  manager,  "by  varying  the  materials  used  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  slag,  that  is,  simply  by  using  different  kinds  of  flux, 
all  the  steel's  impurities  can  be  coaxed  out  to  join  hands  with 
their  chemical  affinities.  Alloys  can  be  added  at  pleasure.  And 
when  the  metal  is  ready,  the  crane  spots  a  ladle  in  place  for  it  and 
then  carries  the  ladle  off  to  a  pouring  platform,  where  it  Is  poured 
into  Ingot  molds  just  like  other  steel." 

All  the  processes  of  steel  making  converge  In  the  production 
of  the  ingot.  The  ingot  is  to  steel  what  bar  gold  Is  to  currency. 
It  is  the  common  denominator — the  standard  by  which  the  pro- 
duction of  steel  is  measured.  And  when  the  molten  metal  has 
been  poured  Into  ingot  molds,  the  intrinsic  business  of  making 
steel  Is  ended.  Thereafter  it  Is  only  a  matter  of  fashioning  from 
the  ingots  the  shapes  desired. — The  Story  of  Steel. 

In  the  iron  and  steel  manufacturing  processes  which  have 
here  been  described  the  chief  eye  hazards  are  (i)  those  due  to  ex- 
posure to  the  great  light  and  heat  of  molten  metal,  and  (2)  to 
burns  from  the  explosions.  Eye  accidents  resulting  from  flying 
scale  or  other  foreign  substance  which  may  lodge  In  a  workman's 
eye  are  also  frequent  In  subsequent  operations. 

The  remarkably  gratifying  reduction  of  accidents  in  this  in- 
dustry (see  Fig.  49,  p.  142)  has  been  effected  by  the  provision  of 
modern  strong  furnaces,  accident-proof  and  fool-proof  so  far  as 
possible  in  the  light  of  present  construction  knowledge,  by  the 
provision  of  hoods  and  exhaust  systems  where  necessary  for  the 
removal  of  dusts,  fumes,  and  gas;  by  the  provision  of  guards  on 
dangerous  places  in  mechanical  operations  and  by  the  provision 
of  goggles  for  all  workers  exposed  to  hazards  which  make  such 
protection  advisable.  The  use  of  these  devices  by  those  whom 
they  are  intended  to  benefit  has  not  been  accomplished  without 
the  most  extensive  expenditure  of  time  and  money  in  educational 

61 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 


0 


BuHrtiftt  Are  R( 


work  done  by  the  safety  directors  of  the  various   steel    com- 
panies. 

Recommendations:  Furnace  men  are  continually  exposed  to 
the  excessive  light  and  heat  from  the  molten  masses  of  iron  or 
steel.  The  same  danger  from  these  light  and  heat  sources  con- 
fronts those  engaged  in  tapping,  pouring,  and  casting,  and  the 
general  recommendation  is  given  that  all  who  are  thus  exposed 
shall  be  provided  with  colored  goggles  for  the  elimination  of  the 

injurious  rays  in  their  particular 
occupation.  (For  color  sugges- 
tions, see  page  52.) 

The  cobalt-blue  glass  which 
has  been  used  so  commonly  by 
furnace  men  is  not  effective  in 
providing  the  protection  needed. 
Those  who  have  worn  blue  glasses 
have  often  become  so  accustomed 
to  watching  the  molten  metal 
through  the  blue  that  it  is  an  ex- 
tremely difficult  matter  for  the 
safety  director  to  bring  about 
their  adoption  of  any  other  color 
of  glass.  While  protection  from 
the  intense  light  is  important,  it 
is  not  so  vital  a  matter  as  is  pro- 
tection from  the  excessive  heat 
engendered  in  these  operations. 
As  to  the  effects  of  this,  and  the  nature  of  protection  advisable, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  section  on  Radiant  Energy  in  Arc 
Welding  and  in  Molten  Metal,  page  47. 

The  metallic  parts  of  the  goggles  which  come  in  contact  with 
the  face  should  be  covered  with  a  non-conducting  material,  such 
as  tubing  or  leather,  to  offset  heat,  and  should  be  of  a  design  which 
permits  complete  adjustment  to  individual  facial  contour. 

In  the  foundries  visited  in  and  around  Buffalo  it  was  rarely 
that  goggles  were  found  in  use  among  those  employes  who  were 
exposed  to  eye  burns  from  explosions  of  molten  metal,  flying 
sparks,  splashing,  et  cetera.     The  usual  excuse  given  was  that 

62 


DflNPLflD 

Explodes 


Fig.  22. 


EYE   HAZARDS    IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

the  goggles  "steamed  up"  and  interfered  with  vision,  and  were 
in  themselves  a  menace  because  they  would  then  **  prevent  a 
man's  seeing  where  to  run  in  the  event  of  an  accident  when  life 
itself  might  depend  upon  a  quick  get-a-way." 

As  has  been  stated  frequently  by  other  writers  describing 
protective  devices  for  industrial  workers,  the  use  of  the  glycerin 
pencil,  or  a  sweat  pencil  of  some  compositions  of  a  similar  char- 
acter, is  of  material  advantage  in  preventing  the  steaming  of 


Fig.  23. — Operatives  wearing  masks  and  goggles  for  protection  from  intense 
light  and  heat.     Otis  Elevator  Company. 


glasses.  A  sweat-band  around  the  forehead  or  attached  to  the 
top  of  the  goggles  to  absorb  the  moisture  and  prevent  perspiration 
from  running  into  the  eyes,  will  also  help  to  relieve  the  difficulty. 
Employers  are  frequently  discouraged  by  the  reluctance  of 
their  employes  to  use  protective  goggles  in  foundry  work.  The 
solution  of  the  difficulty  would  seem  to  depend  on  continued  edu- 

63 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

cational  work  and  the  enforcement  of  regulations  regarding  the 
use  of  goggles  in  these  dangerous  occupations. 

Serious  accidents  may  occur  from  the  spattering  of  molten 
metal  in  filling  and  in  emptying  a  ladle.  To  avoid  this  when 
filling  from  a  continuous  stream  of  metal,  the  stream  should  be 
cut  into  from  the  front,  instead  of  from  its  back.  Ladle  lips 
should  be  so  designed  that  a  smooth  flow  out  in  a  concentrated 
stream  is  also  secured. 

Explosions  are  caused  by  the  molten  metal  coming  in  contact 
with  moisture  in  a  ladle.  Thorough  drying  of  ladles  will  prevent 
such  an  occurrence.  Large  ladles  are  frequently  dried  in  core 
ovens.  This  prevents  fouling  of  the  foundry  air  by  smoke  which 
would  result  if  the  drying  were  accomplished  by  having  fires  built 
in  the  ladles,  as  is  still  done  in  some  foundries,  or  by  attempting 
to  dry  large  ladles  on  a  heater  intended  only  for  the  single-hand 
ladles. 

"When  the  lining  and  drying  of  ladles  are  under  control  of 
one  man,  a  better  opportunity  is  afforded  to  inspect  all  ladles 
thoroughly  every  day.  Inspection  for  cracked  or  thin  bowls, 
loose  rivets,  eroded  shanks,  defective  welds,  imperfect  balancing, 
as  well  as  daily  attention  to  safeguarding  the  gear  mechanism,  is 
thus  concentrated  under  one  man's  watchful  eye.  Moreover, 
the  foreman  himself  can  give  better  oversight  to  this  department 
of  the  work  when  one  man  (not  a  score  or  more)  is  delegated  to 
the  task.  This  method  also  tends  to  insure  storage  of  all  ladles, 
large  or  small,  in  a  dry  place  instead  of  in  damp  corners  or  on  wet 
sand,  where  they  are  apt  to  rust.  Large  ladles  which  remain 
unused  for  long  periods  should  be  stored  on  supports  to  provide 
air  space  and  prevent  absorption  of  moisture  from  the  ground."* 

Not  only  must  dampness  or  moisture  be  avoided  in  the  ladle, 
but  likewise  in  the  crucibles  and  in  the  molds.  When  exposed 
to  high  temperatures,  if  the  crucible  contains  moisture,  there  is 
rapid  condensation  of  the  moisture  into  steam,  which  causes 
explosions  and  breaks  down  the  crucible  walls  in  its  efifort  to 
escape.  The  storing  of  crucibles  in  dry,  heated  places  before 
using,  and  when  not  in  service,  and  the  avoidance  of  their  ex- 
*  "Safety  in  the  Foundry,"  Alexander. 

64 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 


Fig,  24. — Interior  of  babbitting  mask  showing  the  left  glass  cracked  and  com- 
pletely coated  with  molten  metal,  demonstrating  its  efficacy.  United  States 
Steel  Corporation. 


65 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

posure  to  dampness  in  the  fuel  used  in  storage  oven  or  melting 
furnace  will  maintain  them  in  safe  condition. 

Turn-over  pig  molds  when  not  in  use  should  be  left  upside 
down  to  prevent  their  accumulating  moisture. 

GLASS-BLOWERS'  CATARACT 

It  has  been  recognized  for  many  years  that  glass-blowers 
appear  to  be  particularly  susceptible  to  a  special  form  of  cataract, 
which  begins  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  lens,  the  remainder  of 
the  lens  for  a  long  time  remaining  clear.  The  cataract  most  fre- 
quently appears  in  the  left  eye,  which  is  more  exposed  to  the 
molten  mass.  The  length  of  time  necessary  for  its  development 
is  undetermined,  though  it  is  a  matter  of  years. 

Glass-blowers  are  constantly  gazing  into  molten  masses  of  a 
temperature  from  1200°  to  1400°  C,  but  as  the  spectrum  of  a 
non-gaseous  body  at  this  temperature  does  not  include  any  of  the 
so-called  "abiotic"  radiations  {cf.  page  45),  the  popular  theory 
of  injury  from  ultra-violet  radiation  may  be  completely  elim- 
inated.* 

Regarding  the  theory  that  the  development  of  cataract 
among  glass  workers  is  due  to  long-continued  exposure  to  exces- 
sive heat,  rather  than  light  rays,  it  would  appear  that  only  a 
small  percentage  of  energy  transmitted  from  the  source  of  the 
temperature  of  a  glass  furnace  reaches  the  posterior  part  of  the 
lens  and  "  the  effect  of  this  on  the  lens  would  be  more  than  offset 
by  the  greafer  absorption  of  the  anterior  layers.  (Between  80 
and  90  per  cent,  of  the  energy  will  be  absorbed  by  the  cornea 
alone,  and  not  more  than  3  or  4  per  cent,  be  stopped  in  the  lens.) 
Regarding  the  further  distribution  of  temperature  in  the  eye 
resulting  from  the  intense  radiation,  VerhoefT  and  Bell  add: 

"The  iris,  which  strongly  absorbs  most  of  the  energy  which 
falls  upon  it,  especially  if  strongly  colored,  to  a  certain  extent 
screens  the  front  surface  of  the  lens  behind  it,  especially  since  the 
circulatory  system  in  the  iris  tends  to  prevent  its  temperature 
rising  materially  unless  the  access  of  energy  is  above  the  rate  at 
which  circulation  can  take  care  of  it.     At  the  rear  of  the  lens  the 

*  "The  Pathological  Effect  of  Radiant  Energy  on  the  Eye,"  Verhoeflf  and 
Bell,  p.  735. 

66 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

vitreous  with  its  fibrillated  structure  effectively  prevents,  like 
all  such  substances,  the  existence  of  convection  currents.  Just 
what  the  net  effect  of  the  structure  is  upon  the  steady  distribu- 
tion of  temperature  when  the  eye  is  exposed  to  radiation  cantnot 
be  quantitatively  determined,  and  while  undoubtedly  the  heat 
reaching  the  rear  of  the  lens  from  the  energy  transmitted  to  that 
point,  or  received  from  that  taken  up  by  absorption  in  the  an- 
terior part  of  the  eye,  cannot  readily  escape  and  hence  tends 
toward  concentration,  it  seems  somewhat  doubtful  whether  this 
cause  alone  could  determine  the  starting  of  cataract  at  the  pos- 
terior cortex. 

"We  are  inclined  to  attach  more  importance  to  the  suggestions 
of  Leber*  that  the  effect  is  a  secondary  one,  due  to  the  loss  of  water 
in  the  drain  produced  by  the  heat  on  the  front  of  the  eye  and  else- 
where, and  to  that  of  Parsonsf  that  the  malady  may  occur  through 
perspiration  and  malnutrition  due  to  interference  with  the  func- 
tions of  the  ciliary  body  by  the  heat.  The  development  of  glass- 
blowers'  cataract  is  so  slow  that  it  is  quite  hopeless  to  reach  its 
cause  experimentally,  but  from  the  facts  here  stated  we  incline  to 
the  opinion  that  these  secondary  effects  of  radiation  are  more 
important  in  producing  it  than  the  specific  action  of  the  radia- 
tion in  producing  localized  effect  at  the  posterior  cortex.  In 
any  case  it  is  perfectly  clear  that  abiotic  radiations  are  not  con- 
cerned, and  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  matter." 

The  most  satisfactory  colors  of  goggles  recommended  for  the 
protection  of  the  external  eye  against  extreme  heat  are  given  in 
the  discussion  of  this  subject  on  pp.  52  and  53.  In  extenuation 
of  the  usual  reluctancy  of  glass-blowers  to  use  goggles,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  these  men  are  exposed  for  long  periods 
to  high  temperature;  that  they  are  for  this  reason  if  no  other 
constantly  drinking  huge  quantities  of  water  or  liquor  and  perspire 
excessively  as  a  result  thereof.  It  can  scarcely  be  wondered  at 
that  they  are  more  willing  to  run  the  risks  attendant  upon  lack 
of  protection  rather  than  wear  goggles. 

*  Leber:  "Die  Ernahrungs  und  Cirkulations  Verhaltnisse  der  Auges," 
Graefe-Saemisch,  1903,  p.  454. 

t  Parsons:  "Affections  of  the  Eye  Produced  by  Undue  Exposure  to  Light," 
Seventeenth  International  Congress  of  Med.,  Sect.  9,  199,  1913. 

67 


EYE    HAZARDS    IN    INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 


BEWARE  OF  AMATEUR  EYE  DOCTORS 


UY    .I.H.  KASSKN 


Thp  <.ll..r 
,.ar(i.I,-. 


ft    match   to   di(i 


«av»  t.i^  .■><■.      Ilii.l    I..-  i; 
firni   ■„i„«--.l   I. ul.l  lu, 


r..l>.      !.<•   v.-.t<    t„  the 
I    i..i<    v.,rU.   111.-  .•>•• 
I......  i..    ..,.«■    u«,lrr. 

riu  (td.tor-.  liiil'P  l« 
,.  til.-  Jl..~,.ilnl  when 
i<)  im   further  (rooblv. 


Moral:   Don*t    Take    A    Chimcp    With    Amiit(>ur   Doctorn.    (»<»    To    Tho    lloitpital 


Fig.  25. 
68 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 


THE  REMOVAL  OF  A  FOREIGN  SUBSTANCE  FROM 
THE  EYE 

Case:  Roscoe  Markgraf,  of  Antigo,  got  a  sliver  of  wood  in  his  eye.  Instead 
of  reporting  his  accident  and  going  to  a  doctor  he  neglected  the  eye  for  two  days. 
Blood  poison  set  in,  and  the  eye  had  to  be  removed. — Bulletin  No.  423  of  the 
National  Safety  Council. 

Thousands  of  cases  of  Infected  eyes,  many  of  them  damaged 
irreparably,  have  been  caused  by  the  carelessness  of  workmen  who 
have  neglected  a  condition  such  as  that  mentioned  in  the  above 
case  report,  or  who  have  permitted  a  comrade,  at  the  time  of 
injury,  to  remove,  or  attempt  to  remove,  a  foreign  substance 
which  has  lodged  on  or  in  the  eye.  Of  all  hazards  to  eyesight, 
this  is  one  which  is  perhaps  most  frequently  encountered.  Its 
potentialities  for  impaired  vision,  or  total  loss  of  sight,  are  so 
great  that  every  means  tending  to  its  elimination  should  be 
adopted. 

Numerous  micro-organisms  which  have  been  found  to  cause 
infection  of  ocular  wounds  are  mentioned  by  Wiirdemann  in  "Oc- 
cupational Injuries  and  Diseases  of  the  Eye."  Certain  of  the 
most  dreaded  systemic  diseases  may  find  a  point  of  entrance 
through  a  tiny  wound  thus  caused  in  the  cornea,  the  individual 
being  in  all  respects  entirely  normal  and  in  good  health. 

For  example,  a  fine  chip  of  steel  or  emery  has  lodged  on  a 
workman's  eye  at  some  time  when  he  has  not  been  wearing  his 
protective  goggles.  The  offending  substance  may  perhaps  be 
seen  on  the  cornea.  It  is  so  plainly  visible,  and  there  is  so  little 
pain  or  discomfort,  that  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  for  applying 
to  the  hospital,  company  doctor,  or  nurse  for  relief.  A  fellow- 
workman  who  has  established  a  reputation  as  "  the  vshop  oculist" 
is  therefore  requested  to  remove  the  chip. 

He,  perhaps,  may  use  his  soiled  handkerchief,  a  corner  of 
which  is  rolled  to  a  point  and  then  moistened  in  the  mouth.  If 
the  bandana  is  not  in  evidence,  a  match  which  has  been  carried 
around  in  a  sweaty  pocket,  or  perchance  a  toothpick,  is  requisi- 
tioned. 

The  endeavor  to  extract,  or  push  out,  the  chip  from  its  lodg- 
ing place  follows.     If  it  has  become  embedded  in  the  cornea, 

69 


EYE   HAZARDS    IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

considerable  pushing  and  probing  are  necessary  before  it  can  be 
removed.  The  surface  of  the  eye  is  abraded,  and  from  the  edges 
of  the  unclean  probe  microorganisms  are  transferred  to  the  wound. 
Infection  results,  with  possible  subsequent  loss  of  one  or  both  eyes. 

There  still  are  to  be  found  an  infinite  number  of  workplaces 
which  boast  of  their  ''expert  in  the  removal  of  chips"  from  the 
eyes.  With  some  a  long  hair  suffices  for  the  process,  looped  and 
moved  around  under  the  lid,  whose  inner  surface  as  well  as  that 
of  the  eyeball  is  thus  raked  over  in  the  endeavor  to  remove  the 
ofTending  particle.  Occasionally  one  finds  another  type  of  expert 
at  this  work — the  man  who  can  remove  a  foreign  substance  with 
his  tongue. 

The  illustration  in  Fig.  26  shows  a  collection  of  a  few  of  the 
instruments  which  have  been  used  by  ''shop  oculists"  for  the  re- 
moval of  particles  from  the  eyes  of  fellow -workers. 

The  potentialities  of  disaster  which  lie  in  this  kind  of  pro- 
cedure should  be  sufficiently  awful  to  put  a  stop  to  the  effort  if 
workmen  could  but  understand  their  significance.  The  point 
of  a  probe  which  has  been  moistened  in  the  diseased  mouth  of  a 
workman  who  perhaps  is  suffering  with  a  long-standing  case  of 
some  venereal  disease  which  has  produced  lesions  in  the  mouth 
may  ruin  the  sight  and  life  of  an  entirely  innocent  fellow- 
worker.  Moreover,  there  are  always  existent  in  the  normal 
eye  bacteria  which  find  opportunity  for  development  of  serious 
infections  through  abrasions  which  might  result  from  the  un- 
skilled use  of  even  a  thoroughly  sterile  probe,  and  it  is  of  utmost 
importance  that  any  operation  of  this  nature  should  be  done  by 
an  oculist  or  physician  who  may  have  the  opportunity  to  main- 
tain observance  of  the  eye  for  possible  later  developments  that 
might  prove  disastrous. 

Indicative  of  the  damage  resulting  from  infections  are  the 
findings  of  the  Industrial  Commission  of  Ohio,  published  in 
Report  No.  29  of  its  Department  of  Investigation  and  Statistics. 
Of  74,525  industrial  accidents  for  which  awards  were  made  by 
that  Commission  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1915,  infection 
was  reported  in  connection  with  7072  of  this  number,  or,  in  other 
words,  approximately  one  out  of  every  ten  industrial  injuries 
became  infected. 

70 


EYE   HAZARDS    IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 


Fig.   26. — Articles  which  have  been   used   by  "shop  oculists"   in  removing 
foreign  particles  from  the  eyes  of  their  fellow-workmen. 


71 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

Of  the  1643  cases  of  permanent  partial  disability,  161  (9.8 
per  cent.)  were  caused  by  infection.  There  were  255  cases  of 
total  or  partial  loss  of  vision  in  one  or  both  eyes.  Of  these,  46 
(18  per  cent.)  w^ere  due  to  infection. 

Of  71,400  cases  of  temporary  disability  allowed  there  were 
8000  cases  due  to  presence  of  a  foreign  body  in  the  eye;  519  (6.48 
per  cent.)  of  these  were  attended  by  infection. 

Very  little  information  is  available  covering  the  time  and 
wages  lost  due  to  infection.  It  is  undoubtedly  great.  In  the 
last  Industrial  Insurance  Report  of  the  State  of  Washington  it 
is  shown  that  1029  injuries  resulted  in  infection.  This  number 
is  approximately  7  per  cent,  of  all  injuries  reported;  59  of  these 
were  infections  of  the  eye.  The  number  of  work-days  lost  as  a 
result  of  these  eye  infections  was  1024 — an  average  of  17.3  days 
lost  per  case.  Fourteen  of  these  became  permanent  partial 
disabilities.  The  total  compensation  awards  for  the  59  cases 
amounted  to  $10,446.  As  usual,  the  chief  causal  factors  were 
foreign  substances  lodging  in  or  on  the  eye,  bruises,  punctures, 
scalds,  burns,  and  cuts. 

Recommendations:  Any  workman  who  sustains  an  injury  of 
this  nature,  no  matter  how  slight  it  may  seem  to  be,  should  go  at 
once  to  the  company  hospital,  physician,  or  nurse,  if  such  there 
be.  There  should  be  "first-aid  kits"  in  charge  of  foremen  or 
office  men  who  have  been  instructed  in  their  use,  and  such  per- 
sons only  should  be  the  ones  consulted  in  any  emergency  of  this 
nature  if  no  physician  is  employed  by  the  company. 

"For  the  removal  of  dust  and  dirt  the  lids  should  be  gently 
separated  and  the  eye  flushed  with  boric  acid  or  normal  salt 
solution,  followed  by  a  couple  of  drops  of  a  10  per  cent,  argyrol 
solution  or  the  application  of  a  small  bead  of  bichloride  salve, 
bandaged,  and  the  man  sent  to  the  company  doctor.  This  rule 
also  applies  to  any  injuries  in  which  the  foreign  body  has  em- 
bedded itself  in  the  eye  or  penetrated  it.* 

"All  cases  of  penetrating  injuries  should  be  sent  to  the  doctor. 

Frequently  the  injured  man  has  so  little  discomfort  and  so  little 

interference  with  vision,  he  will  not  even  apply  for  first  aid,  and 

if  he  does  do  so,  will  refuse  to  go  to  the  doctor.     As  a  result  many 

*  "The  Eye  in  Industrial  Accidents,"  Nelson  M.  Black,  M.D. 

72 


EYE   HAZARDS    IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

eyes  are  lost  which  otherwise  might  be  saved.  If  the  penetrating 
body  is  small,  it  is  often  impossible  for  the  injured  person  to  tell 
whether  there  is  anything  in  the  eye  or  not,  and  the  ordinary 
means  of  examination  used  by  a  doctor  may  not  be  able  to  de- 
termine it.  In  such  cases  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to 
determine  by  means  of  the  x-ray  if  there  is  a  foreign  body  within 
the  globe,  for  if  foreign  bodies  are  not  removed,  they  will  eventu- 
ally destroy  vision  or  cause  loss  of  the  eye." 

First-aid  kits  are  now  marketed  by  a  number  of  the  large 
medical  and  safety  supply  houses,  and  such  safeguards  should  be 
available  in  every  shop.  Sterile  gauze  and  bandages,  a  syringe 
for  flushing  the  eye,  boric  acid,  argyrol,  and  the  other  accessories 
of  first-aid  equipment  should  be  available  and  ready  for  emer- 
gency use. 

If  there  is  one  regulation  above  all  others  which  should  not 
fail  of  being  in  effect  in  every  shop,  factory,  and  workplace  of 
any  nature  whatsoever,  it  is  that  there  shall  be  no  attempt  made 
on  the  part  of  any  workman  to  remove  from  the  eye  or  eyes  of  a 
comrade  a  chip  or  foreign  substance  of  any  kind  which  may  have 
accidentally  lodged  therein.  Many  corporations  have  already 
adopted  such  a  ruling,  the  penalty  for  non-compliance  usually 
being  immediate  dismissal  of  the  offender. 

GAGE-GLASSES 

Case:  Anthony  Boehm,  thirty-seven  years  old,  of  Irondale,  was  brought  to  the 
East  Liverpool  Hospital  yesterday,  where  a  piece  of  broken  glass  was  taken 
out  of  his  left  eye  by  Dr.  J.  W.  Chetwind.  Boehm  was  suffering  greatly  as 
the  result  of  the  particle  of  glass  flying  into  his  eye  in  an  accident  Thursday 
afternoon,  when  the  water  glass  on  a  steam  boiler  broke.  He  will  lose  the  sight 
of  the  one  eye,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  other  will  also  be  affected.  Boehm 
was  employed  as  stationary  engineer  by  the  Eastern  Ohio  Sewer  Pipe  Works. 
Thursday  afternoon  he  happened  to  be  standing  close  to  the  steam  boiler  at 
which  he  was  working  when  the  water  glass  on  the  boiler  exploded  without 
warning.  It  was  at  first  thought  that  the  injury  was  only  a  minor  one,  but 
it  rapidly  became  serious. — East  Liverpool,  Ohio,  Tribune,  May  22,  IQ15. 

The  effort  to  safeguard  workmen  from  a  bursting  gage-glass 
appears  to  have  been  sadly  neglected  in  and  around  Buffalo. 
With  but  few  exceptions  guards  on  the  gage-glasses  were  lacking. 

When  there  occurs  such  an  accident  as  the  one  cited  in  the 

73 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 


foregoing  case,  steam,  hot  water,  and  particles  of  glass  are  blown 
out  from  the  broken  glass,  and  should  the  engineer  or  any  other 
employe  happen  to  be  standing  near  at  hand,  or  facing  the  gage- 
glass,  he  will  in  all  likelihood  sustain  serious  burns  and  cuts. 
While  accidents  of  this  nature  are  comparatively  infrequent,  the 
statistics  of  the  Massachusetts  Employees  Compensation  In- 
surance Association  show  that  during  a  recent  year  seven  men 
in  that  state  lost  the  sight  of  both  eyes  from  this  cause,  and  one 
workman  lost  the  sight  of  one  eye. 

The  breakage  of  a  gage-glass  is  frequently  traceable  to  mis- 
alignment of  the  connections,  defects  in  the  glass,  and  the  effect 

of  erosion  caused  by  the  condensation 

Iof  steam,  and  apparent  at  the  top  of 
the  glass. 
Recommendations:  In  the  Fidel- 
ity and  Casualty  Company's  booklet, 
"  Industrial  Accident  Prevention,"  the 
following  suggestions  regarding  this 
hazard  are  given : 


Fig.  27. — Upper  ends  of  new 
and  worn  tubular  glasses. 


"The  danger  to  the  attendants 
from  the  bursting  of  gage-glasses  nat- 
urally suggests  the  use  of  a  safety 
device  in  the  form  of  a  guard.  But 
the  use  of  a  guard  makes  it  less  easy 
to  keep  track  of  the  water-level,  and 
the  danger  of  low  water  through  wrong 
readings  is  thus  encountered. 

"When  the  condition  will  permit 
the  use  of  a  guard,  either  of  the  following  arrangements  will  pre- 
vent the  glass  from  flying  and  will  deflect  the  steam  and  water 
to  some  extent,  thereby  enabling  a  safer  approach  for  closing  the 
valves : 

**i.  Place  a  V-shaped  or  semi-circular  shield  of  wire-glass  in 
front  of  the  gage-glass. 

"2.  Enclose  the  glass  in  a  metal  shield  which  is  slotted  to  per- 
mit observation  of  the  water-level. 

"The  use  of  pendent  chains  from  lever-operated  valves 
will  also  be  of  assistance  in  closing  after  breakage.  In  case  of 
breakage,  close  the  water-valve  first.  When  a  new  glass  has 
been  inserted,  step  out  of  range  and  open  the  water-valve 
first." 

74  . 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

The  gage  glass,  with  protective  features,  as  illustrated  on 
this  page,  shows  a  device  invented  by  one  of  the  Superinten- 
dents of  Motive  Power  of  the  New  York  Central  Lines,  and  has 


Fig.  28. — Water  glass  shield.    New  York  Central  Lines. 

been  adopted  as  standard  by  that  system.  The  blowout  pipe 
at  the  rear  extends  downward  through  the  floor  of  the  locomo- 
tive cab  and  is  designed  to  carry  away  broken  glass,  water,  and 
steam  should  a  breakage  occur. 


75 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 


Certain  states  have  adopted  the  following  recommendations 
with  regard  to  this  hazard: 

Each  water-gage-glass  guard  lo- 
cated within  ten  feet  of  floor  or  firing 
platform  shall  be  equipped  with  a 
guard  which  constantly  interposes  a 
transparent  vshield  between  the  gage- 
glass  and  the  workman.  This  shield 
may  consist  of  heavy  plate  glass  or 
wired  glass,  but  shall  be  of  sufficient 
strength  to  withstand  the  shock  of  a 
bursting  gage-glass.  (Plain  wire  net- 
ting is  not  approved  for  this  service.) 
The  guard  shall  be  so  arranged  that 
it  is  not  necessary  to  remove  it  in  re- 
placing the  gage-glass. 

Water-gage  glasses  lo  feet  or  more 
above  the  floor  or  firing  platform  may 
be  protected  by  a  guard  similar  to  the 
above  or  by  a  shield  of  metal  which 
can  be  rotated  to  the  front  of  the 
glass  to  give  temporary  protection 

Ml  _j  -^  and  then  returned  to  position  back 

I  ■  H^l  ^^  ^^^  glass,  where  it  does  not  ob- 

i    L»i.i.  bH  ■■iJL=»       struct  the  view  of  the  water-level. 

Conditions  must  be  such  that  the 
water-level  in  the  gage-glass  is  dis- 
tinct at  all  times.  This  object  may 
be  secured  by  the  use  of  lights,  or  by 
marking  on  the  shield  back  of  the 

t"  T^  ^  M     f       ^  glass,  such  as  45  degree  lines  about 

Fig.   29. — Detail    of    water        &         »  to        & 

glass   with    protector    open.       one-quarter   inch    in  width,   spaced 

Whenclosed,  danger  is  elim-       approximately  one-half  inch  apart, 
mated  without  affecting  visi-  .*^  .        -^  t^       > 

bility  of  water-level.  with  vertical  center  line  in  red. 


76 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 


ACIDS  AND  CHEMICALS 

Case:   Total  loss  of  eyesight  through  acid  blown  in  his  face  is  the  basis  of  an 

employer's  liability  suit  brought  by  C •  M — —  against  the Chemical 

Works.     The  laborer  was  pouring  the  acid  from  one  barrel  into  another,  he 
states,  when  a  fellow-workman  opened  a  valve,  admitting  compressed  air 

into  one  of  the  barrels.     This  blew  the  acid  into  M 's  face,  burning  his 

eyes,  face,  arms,  and  body. — Elizabeth,  New  Jersey,  Journal,  April  i8,  igi6. 

There  are  many  manufacturing  operations  which  require  the 
use  of  acids.  In  the  manufacture  of  storage  batteries,  in  soap 
making,  in  the  aniline-dye  industry,  et  al.,  large  quantities  of 
acids  are  constantly  consumed.  In  processes  calling  for  acid 
baths,  bright  dips,  plating,  et  al.,  there  is  continuous  use  of  dan- 
gerous acids  and  chemicals. 

In  approximately  75  per  cent,  of  the  industries  studied  in 
Buffalo  there  was  apparent  some  process  in  which  acids  were 
present  either  as  a  product  or  as  an  element. 

The  risks  are  often  most  apparent  where  but  small  quantities 
of  acids  are  used.  For  instance,  a  company  may  have  need  for 
not  more  than  a  single  carboy's  contents  during  an  entire  year. 
Little  attention  is  paid  to  the  storage  of  this  carboy,  and  it  is 
put  away  in  some  corner  where  it  will  be  out  of  the  way  until 
needed.  Sooner  or  later  some  of  its  contents  are  required,  and  a 
workman  is  sent  to  fill  a  pail  or  pitcher.  In  the  attempt  to  pour 
the  acid  a  slip  occurs,  the  pitcher  drops  and  breaks,  spilling  the 
fluid,  or  the  unwieldy  carboy  overbalances  and  the  same  result 
occurs — ^with  a  badly  burned  workman  having  to  be  rushed  to  the 
company  doctor  and  perhaps  laid  ofT  for  days. 

Accidents  of  this  kind  are  to  be  expected  unless  a  pump  has 
been  furnished  for  removing  the  acid  from  carboy,  or  unless  the 
container  is  securely  fastened  to  an  inclinator.  An  inclinator,  even 
when  but  a  single  carboy  is  stocked,  should  always  be  provided. 
One  man  can  safely  handle  a  carboy  held  in  such  an  inclinator  as 
is  shown  in  Fig.  31. 

Recommendations :  Adoption  of  safe  methods  of  handling  and 
transporting  acids,  and  the  use  of  protective  goggles  wherever 
there  is  any  possibility  of  eye  burns  from  splashes,  or  caustic  chips, 
are  the  chief  means  of  protecting  workmen  in  this  industry. 

77 


EYE   HAZARDS    IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 


A 


Fig.  30. — The  handling  of  acids  (A,  Unsafe  and 
inefficient  method).    Horace  M.  McCord  &  Co. 


The  transporta- 
tion problem  may  be 
solved  by  the  provi- 
sion of  the  right  type  of 
carrier.  Unfortunate- 
ly, there  still  remains 
in  common  use  the  old- 
type  carboy  carrier, 
consisting  of  two  sticks 
passed  under  the  side 
cleats.  To  convey  this 
apparatus  requires  the 
services  of  two  men 
and  is  decidedly  in- 
efficient, expensive, 
and  dangerous  in  com- 
parison  with  other 
conveying  methods. 


Safe  and  economic  practice  requires  the  use  of  a  carrier  which 
can  be  safely  handled 
by  a  single  workman. 
In  frequent  use  is  the 
one-wheel  carrier, 
which  resembles  in 
many  ways  the  ordi- 
nary wheelbarrow,  ex- 
cept that  the  carrying 
space  of  the  latter  is 
omitted.  The  handles 
spread  outward  and 
then  are  brought  to- 
gether to  hold  the 
boxed  carboy  firmly 
on  an  even  and  secure 
basis. 

The  center  of  grav- 
ity    of     the     load     is      pj^    31  _jhe  handling  of  acids   (B,  Safe  and 
thus  very  close  to  the         efficient  method).  Horace  M.  McCord  &  Co. 

78 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

ground.  This  fact  materially  offsets  the  tendency  of  the  single 
wheel  carrier  toward  instability.  However,  in  opening  the 
handles  to  the  necessary  width  there  is  the  disadvantageous  re- 
quirement for  considerable  space.  This  requisite  often  makes 
necessary  the  preliminary  moving  of  carboys  away  from  neigh- 
boring objects  with  which  they  have  been  stored  before  they 
can  be  loaded  on  the  carrier,  and  so  provides  further  opportunity 
for  a  mishap. 

The  General  Chemical  Company  has  designed  and  put  into 
use  an  improvement  on  the  one-wheel  device.  The  chief  change 
is  that  two  wheels  are  provided,  and,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  32,  there 
is  no  requirement  of  side  room.  When  picking  up  the  carboy, 
the  carrier  is  simply  pushed  forward  with  the  cleats  going  under 
the  side  pieces  on  the  carboy  box.  Although  designed  chiefly 
for  2 1 -inch  carboys,  it  is  readily  adjustable  for  those  18  inches  in 
width. 

Both  of  the  types  mentioned  are  adaptable  for  transportation 
of  carboys  over  rough  ground  in  yards  as  well  as  over  smooth 
factory  floors,  although  for  inside  factory  use  a  low  truck  with 
small  wheels  and  end  rails  is  more  frequently  employed.  Such  a 
carrier  should  be  small  enough  to  fit  into  elevators.  The  lift 
required  in  loading  is  only  a  few  inches,  and  thus  the  chances  of 
spilling  the  acid  are  materially  reduced. 

The  moving  and  pouring  of  acid  should  be  the  work,  when- 
ever possible,  of  one  set  of  workmen  who,  made  cognizant  of  the 
special  hazards  incident  to  such  work,  should  be  well  trained  in 
safety  methods  to  offset  them. 

The  methods  employed  in  the  filling  of  carboys  and  acid 
tank  cars  are  extremely  important  from  the  standpoint  of  safety. 
The  Buffalo  plants  studied  had  been  singularly  free  from  eye 
injuries  so  long  as  the  work  was  performed  in  the  regular  location 
and  the  standard  method  used.  However,  it  was  sometimes 
necessary  to  fill  carboys  for  a  time  at  other  than  the  usual  places 
in  the  plant,  and  under  unfamiliar  conditions,  injuries  had  been 
received  from  spattering  acids.  These  were  in  large  part  at- 
tributed to  the  fact  that  the  work  was  done  in  a  temporary 
location,  and  under  unaccustomed  and  perhaps  adverse  condi- 
tions. 

79 


EYE   HAZARDS    IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 


Fig.  32. — One-man  truck  for  18-inch  carboy,  with  detachable  adjustment 
for  handling  lead  carboys.  A  safe,  light,  smooth-running,  and  inexpensive 
carrier.     General  Chemical  Company. 

80 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

The  essential  in  providing  safe  working  conditions  is  oppor- 
tunity for  freedom  of  movement.  No  matter  if  all  other  condi- 
tions are  safe,  the  lack  of  space  will  create  a  dangerous  hazard. 

An  excellent  apparatus  for  filling  carboys  has  also  been  de- 
vised by  the  General  Chemical  Company.  It  consists  of  a  lead 
pipe  leading  from  the  acid  supply,  with  a  quarter  bend  of  about 
three  and  one-half  feet.  The  stop-cock  is  installed  near  the  end  of 
this  pipe,  the  few  remaining  inches  being  bent  so  as  to  fit  into  the 
neck  of  the  carboy  for  several  inches.  When  the  carboy  is  filled, 
the  pipe  is  lifted  out  and  the  carboy  moved  along  the  platform. 
In  its  normal  position  the  end  of  the  supply  pipe  is  a  few  inches 
below  the  top  of  the  carboy  neck,  and  it  requires  a  slight  effort 
to  spring  the  pipe  into  the  neck.  This  holds  the  pipe  firmly  in 
place. 

Another  and  more  common  method  is  to  use  a  movable  hose. 
Thus  several  rows  of  carboys  can  be  filled  without  moving  them. 
The  bad  feature  of  this  method  is  in  the  deterioration  of  the  hose, 
which,  if  allowed  to  progress  until  there  is  a  break,  may  cause 
serious  burns. 

The  development  of  satisfactory  eye-protective  devices  for 
use  in  the  chemical  industry  embodies  features  peculiar  to  that 
industry,  and  presents  to  the  safety  worker  problems  which  as 
yet  are  but  partially  solved.  Prominent  among  those  who  have 
made  a  special  study  of  the  subject  is  Mr.  J.  R.  de  la  Torre  Bueno, 
Editor  of  '*  The  Bulletin,"  General  Chemical  Company,  New  York. 

In  a  paper  entitled  "The  Goggle  Problem  in  the  Chemical 
Industry,"  Mr.  Bueno  sums  up  the  goggle  requirements  as  fol- 
lows: 

"Many  goggles  have  been  made  for  chemical  plants;  some 
are  still  used.  One  type  consists  of  a  frame  of  soft  rubber  with  a 
broad  piece  going  across  the  nose  and  other  pieces  projecting  be- 
yond the  temples.  Another  has  hard-rubber  cups  fitted  with 
pneumatic  cushions  along  the  edges  to  be  inflated  when  worn  by 
means  of  two  little  rubber  tubes  with  stop-cocks.  Both  have  the 
defect  of  heat ;  the  soft-rubber  ones  have  eyelets  let  in  for  ventila- 
tion, but  in  such  a  way  that  there  is  always  danger  of  corrosive 
liquids  flowing  in.  The  hard-rubber  contrivance  is  unpractical. 
Besides,  the  pneumatic  binding  readily  gets  out  of  order.  The 
goggle  most  in  vogue  consists  of  a  close-fitting  flexible  rubber  half 
6  8i 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

mask  or  visor  which  adheres  so  closely  to  the  face  that  liquids 
cannot  seep  under  it  and  flow  into  the  eye.  This  has  a  very  great 
disadvantage,  besides  being  unsightly — in  the  extreme  discom- 
fort produced  in  the  wearer  by  reason  of  the  heat  and  perspira- 
tion induced  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  face  with  which  it  is  in 
close  contact. 

"  None  of  these  types  has  efficiently  solved  the  goggle  problem 
in  the  chemical  industry. 

"Let  me  draw  the  ideal  goggle:  First,  it  has  only  one  object, 
to  protect  perfectly  the  eye — that  organ  at  once  so  delicate  and 
so  important  to  the  worker.  It  is  meant  neither  for  comfort  nor 
for  beauty,  but  for  safety.  But  in  attaining  its  prime  object, 
none  of  the  collateral  points  should  be  ignored.  These,  then,  are 
the  objects  to  be  attained,  the  marks  of  the  ideal  goggle,  in  the 
order  of  their  importance: 

Perfect  protection  to  the  eye. 
Large  field  of  vision. 
Comfort. 
Sightliness. 

**  Perfect  protection  can  be  secured  by  making  the  goggle 
of  a  material  unaffected  by  chemicals  and  by  making  it  fit  so 
closely  that  neither  above  nor  below  nor  at  the  sides  may  the 
least  drop  of  a  corrosive  liquid  penetrate  to  the  eye,  either  by 
dashing  against  the  goggle  or  by  seeping  under  it.  It  must, 
therefore,  be  flexible  in  order  to  conform  closely  to  the  contour  of 
the  face. 

"  The  large  field  of  vision  is  a  solved  problem ;  it  works  against 
a  deep  eye-cup,  which  tends  to  increasingly  limit  the  angle  of 
sight  with  increasing  depth. 

*'  Comfort  depends  on  two  elements:  the  weight  of  the  goggle 
and  its  ventilation,  to  prevent  excessive  perspiration.  In  the 
nature  of  things,  as  the  chemical  goggle  is  practically  a  half 
mask,  its  weight  can  be  but  little  reduced,  except  by  making  it  of 
aluminum  and  of  light  construction,  two  possible  points  of  im- 
provement. Excessive  heat  is  overcome  by  ventilation  and  by 
reducing  the  surface  in  contact  with  the  face. 

''Sightliness  is  immaterial,  given  the  necessity  for  perfect 
protection  with  a  maximum  of  comfort. 

**To  meet  the  conditions  set  forth  the  goggle  frame  or  mask 
should  be  of  flexible  wire  netting;  shaped  to  the  face,  but  dished 
sufficiently  to  keep  it  from  contact  except  along  the  edges,  which 
should  be  bound  with  a  soft,  resilient  rubber  tubing.  The  edges 
should  be  made  flexible,  so  that  they  may  be  bent  to  conform  to 
facial  contours,  so  as  to  avoid  undue  pressure  at  one  spot  or  being 

82 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

too  far  removed  at  another.  The  rubber  setting  for  the  large 
glasses  should  afford  a  wide  range  of  vision  and  be  perforated 
near  the  lenses  to  allow  the  escape  of  heated  air,  thus  preventing 
condensation  of  moisture  and  clouding.  The  openings  should  be 
on  the  slant  of  the  frame,  so  that  in  case  acid  flows  down  the  face 
to  the  glass-settings,  it  will  not  readily  leak  into  them;  but  if  it 
does,  they  must  be  so  close  to  the  glass  that  any  acid  would  flow 
down  the  inside  of  the  lenses.  The  mask  should  be  coated  with  a 
flexible,  acid-proof  varnish  to  make  it  impermeable  and  at  the 
same  time  to  preserve  it  from  the  corrosive  action  of  the  fumes 
about  a  chemical  plant. 

"This  goggle  would  overcome  three  of  the  difficulties:  it 
would  give  effective  protection  with  maximum  sight,  together 
with  a  large  degree  of  comfort.  This  is  offered  as  an  approximate 
solution  of  the  goggle  problem  in  the  chemical  industry." 


THE  TREATMENT  OF  ACID  BURNS 

Wherever  workmen  are  handling  acids  or  chemicals,  there 
should  be  readily  available  clean  running  water  to  be  used  for 
washing  hands  or  irrigating  eyes,  on  which  the  chemicals  may 
have  splashed  through  accident  or  explosion.  The  best  first-aid 
treatment  in  such  an  emergency  is  to  lay  the  victim  on  his  back 
and  thoroughly  irrigate  the  eyes,  lifting  the  lids  and  enabling  the 
water  to  reach  as  far  thereunder  as  possible.  A  small  flexible 
hose  from  which  a  moderate  jet  of  water  can  be  directed  into  the 
eyes  should  be  at  hand.  If  no  better  way  is  evident,  plunge  the 
head  into  a  pail  of  water  and  open  the  eyes  so  as  thoroughly  to 
cleanse  them  of  the  acid.  If  the  works  are  equipped  with  first- 
aid  kits,  then  apply  bichloride  salve,  bandage  the  eyes,  and  send 
for  the  doctor. 

The  important  thing  is  to  dilute  the  chemical  as  quickly  and 
thoroughly  as  possible. 

EYE  BURNS  FROM  CAUSTIC  SODA 

In  the  manufacture  of  caustic  soda,  severe  burns  are  likely  to 
be  sustained  by  the  workmen  unless  constant  care  is  exercised  in 
preventing  spattering  of  caustic  soda  liquor,  and  flying  of  chips 
of  solid  caustic  soda  when  opening  packages  or  when  breaking 
up  large  pieces.     The  mucous  membrane  of  the  eyes  and  of  the 

83 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

mouth  is  particularly  susceptible  to  injury  from  burns  of  this 
nature.  While  this  hazard  exists  in  the  manufacture  of  caustic 
soda,  attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  no  special  risks  peculiar 
to  themselves  exist  in  the  manufacture  of  either  soda-ash  or  bi- 
carbonate of  soda. 

Dilute  acetic  acid  has  been  generally  used  for  immediate  first- 
aid  treatment  of  burns  from  caustic  soda.  Its  effect  is  to  at 
once  neutralize  the  caustic  soda  and  convert  it  into  harmless 
sodium  acetate,  stopping  its  injurious  action  upon  the  flesh  or 
material  attacked. 

This  treatment,  as  extensively  used,  **is  prepared  from  good 
quality  commercial  acetic  acid  by  diluting  it  to  an  exact  content 
of  2  per  cent,  actual  acetic  acid.  If  the  commercial  acetic  acid 
be  of  30  per  cent,  strength,  one  quart  of  it  is  added  to  fourteen 
quarts  of  water  to  give  2  per  cent,  strength.  After  this  dilution, 
the  acid  is  analyzed  to  make  sure  that  its  strength  is  2  per  cent. 
After  the  eye  is  thoroughly  washed  with  this  preparation,  sweet 
oil  is  applied.  It  is  important  that  no  absorbent  cotton  be  used 
for  cleansing  the  burn,  because  fibers  of  that  cotton  become  em- 
bedded in  the  wound."* 

Bottles  containing  the  dilute  acetic  acid  should  be  placed  at 
frequent  intervals  throughout  the  manufacturing  plant,  and  the 
workmen  trained  to  use  it  immediately  when  needed. 

Inasmuch  as  there  are  those  who  feel  that  dilute  acetic  acid 
wash  does  not  measure  up  to  the  requirements  for  treatment  of 
eye  burns  so  successfully  as  might  some  other  treatment,  it  should 
be  stated  that  i  to  2  per  cent,  solution  of  zinc  sulphate  as  a  relief 
measure  has  been  in  continuous  use  by  at  least  one  companyf  for 
the  past  eight  years  in  hundreds  of  cases,  regarding  which  its 
Safety  Director  writes:  *'We  have  yet  to  have  a  case  of  material 
loss  of  vision  resulting  from  such  an  injury." 

The  primary  reaction  is  as  follows: 

ZnS04         +         2NaOH  =  Na2S04         +         Zn(0H)2 

Zinc  sulphate      Sodium  hydroxide      Sodium  sulphate      Zinc  hydroxide 

*  "The  Hazards  of  Caustic  Soda  Manufacture  and  Use,"  E.  Fiesinger, 
Semet-Solvay  Company,  Syracuse,  New  York. 

t  Hooker  Electrochemical  Company,  Niagara  Falls,  New  York,  Mr.  J.  C. 
Slade,  Safety  Director. 

84 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

The  advantages  which  are  claimed  for  the  use  of  zinc  sulphate 
over  a  dilute  acetic  acid  wash  are  as  follows : 
(i)  Less  irritant. 

(2)  Complete  or  100  per  cent,  reaction,  rather  than  an  equi- 

librium reaction  as  with  acetic  acid. 

(3)  Antiseptic  quality  of  known  value. 

The  details  of  the  procedure  adopted  for  the  treatment  of 
eye  burns  of  this  nature  by  the  company  referred  to  are  as  follows : 

"We  have  distributed  throughout  our  caustic  buildings,  dis- 
tinctly marked,  small  boxes  containing  a  12-ounce  bottle  of  2 
per  cent,  zinc  sulphate  solution  and  one  or  more  eye-cups.  These 
boxes  are  kept  supplied  with  the  solution. 

"When  a  workman  receives  a  splash  of  caustic  in  his  eye,  his 
first  thought  is  to  get  the  zinc  sulphate  solution,  and  we  have 
trained  them  to  keep  the  location  of  these  boxes  pretty  well  in 
mind.  It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  some  other  workman,  on  hear- 
ing his  cry,  will  get  the  solution  to  him.  The  eye  is  thoroughly 
washed  at  the  point  where  the  caustic  is  received,  and  then  the 
man  goes  to  the  dispensary  as  quickly  as  he  can  get  there.  In 
the  dispensary  the  man  is  laid  out  on  the  table  and  more  zinc 
sulphate  is  applied.  Of  course,  the  pain  is  severe,  so  we  then 
administer  cocaine  (2  per  cent.),  and  after  this  repeat  the  dose 
of  zinc  sulphate.  By  this  time  we  are  pretty  sure  that  the  caustic 
is  neutralized  entirely,  so  we  apply  more  cocaine,  then  olive  oil, 
apply  a  cold  compress,  and  send  him  to  the  physician.  The  after- 
care of  such  an  eye-burn  is  exactly  the  same  as  for  any  burn  or 
irritation  of  the  eye,  to  permit  of  proper  healing  and  control  of 
possible  adhesions.  Ice-packs  are  kept  on  the  eye  while  the  pain 
is  severe,  and  this  usually  makes  a  patient  comfortable. 

"Proper  and  quick  neutralization  is  the  essential  treatment, 
and  by  quick  neutralization  I  mean  that  received  a  few  seconds 
after  the  caustic  has  entered  the  eye.  Bad  burns  are  the  result 
of  waiting  until  the  patient  can  get  to  the  dispensary. 

"  For  acid  burns  we  lay  the  same  stress  on  proper  and  quick 
neutralization  with  sodium  bicarbonate  (c.  p.),  and  follow  this 
with  the  cocaine  treatment  and  olive  oil.  For  toluol  and  benzol 
splashes  (where  the  result  is  not  necessarily  a  burn,  but  intense 
irritation,  and  this  is  true  with  toluol  fumes)  our  treatment  is 
cocaine  (2  per  cent.)  and  let  the  patient  stand  with  his  eye  open  in 
front  of  a  fan  to  evaporate  the  benzol  or  toluol.  I  refer  particu- 
larly to  toluol  and  chlortoluol,  with  its  derivatives,  as  this  is 
where  the  intense  irritation  is  found.  We  also  find  that  steam 
(properly  regulated)  is  very  effective  for  this  purpose. 

85 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

INDUSTRIAL  POISONS 

In  Bulletin  No.  lOO  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor, 
published  in  May,  19 12,  appears  a  translation  in  full  of  a  list  of 
industrial  poisons  cited  by  the  International  Association  for 
Labor  Legislation.  A  total  of  56  poisons,  exclusive  of  a  few  in- 
termediates and  by-products,  appear  in  this  list,  and  in  addition 
to  the  designation  of  the  poisonous  substance,  there  are  shown 
the  branches  of  industry  in  which  poisoning  occurs,  the  mode  of 
entrance  into  the  body,  and  the  symptoms  of  poisoning.  To 
duplicate  this  list,  which  is  available  through  the  Government 
Printing  Office,  Washington,  is  needless.  Of  the  56  poisons,  36 
have  more  or  less  serious  effects  upon  the  eye. 

The  most  common  results  are  irritation  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes, causing  lachrymation  and  light  flashes  before  the  eyes. 
Other  results  may  be  the  discoloration  of  the  conjunctiva,  dis- 
turbance of  the  sense  of  vision,  retrobulbar  neuritis,  choroiditis, 
dilatation  of  pupils,  photophobia,  clouding  of  the  cornea,  di- 
plopia from  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the  eyes,  amblyopia,  pro- 
trusion of  the  eyes,  contraction  of  pupils,  ulceration  of  orbital 
bones,  shrinking  of  the  eyeballs,  erosion  of  the  cornea,  transient 
blindness,  progressive  atrophy  of  the  optic  nerve,  and  permanent 
blindness.  Resulting  from  certain  of  these  industrial  poisons 
may  come  a  combination  of  two  or  more  of  the  above  symp- 
toms, and  these,  it  must  be  understood,  are  usually  but  con- 
comitant with  other,  and  frequently  serious,  affections  of  the 
body. 

The  mode  of  entrance  of  these  poisons  into  the  body  is  most 
frequently  in  the  form  of  vapor,  through  the  respiratory  organs. 
The  inhalation  of  dust  may  likewise  produce  the  effect  through 
the  lungs.  Direct  action  of  the  poison  through  or  on  the  skin  is 
another  method  of  entry,  while  occasionally  the  poison  is  carried 
into  the  body  through  the  digestive  tract,  due  to  handling  of 
food-stufTs,  cigars,  cigarettes,  chewing  tobacco,  etc.,  with  hands 
from  which  the  toxic  substance  has  not  been  thoroughly  cleansed. 

Of  special  note  as  productive  of  serious  symptoms  and  results 
are  ammonia,  benzol,  and  the  other  intermediates  of  the  dye  in- 
dustry, brass,  carbon  disulphide,  dimethyl  sulphate,  hydrofluoric 

86 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

acid,  lead,  methyl  alcohol  (see  section  devoted  to  that  subject, 
pp.  92-99),  methyl  bromide,  nitroglycerin,  and  phosphorus. 

The  measures  of  relief  for  the  symptoms  excited  by  the  poisons 
are  given  in  the  Bulletin  referred  to,  as  are  also  instructions  for 
the  protection  of  industrial  workers  exposed  to  the  toxic  material 
covered.  Adoption  of  the  following  recommendations  as  given 
therein  will  greatly  reduce  the  dangers  from  these  toxic  materials: 


MEASURES  FOR  THE  PROTECTION  OF  INDUSTRIAL 
WORKERS  AGAINST  THE  DANGERS  OF  POISON 

1.  Properly  adapted  buildings,  thick  walls  of  separation  for 
dangerous  rooms,  good  lighting,  facilities  for  keeping  the  work- 
shops clean  and  for  effective  ventilation. 

2.  Apparatus  adapted  to  its  special  purpose,  whenever  pos- 
sible, closing  tight  in  every  part. 

3.  Appliances  for  accomplishing  the  arrest  of  gases  and  dust 
at  their  place  of  origin,  their  removal,  by  exhaust  fans,  and  in  a 
suitable  manner  rendering  them  innocuous  or  collecting  them, 
thus  preventing  them  from  entering  the  nose  and  mouth. 

4.  So  far  as  possible  avoidance  of  direct  contact  with  poison- 
ous materials  or  substances  injurious  to  health  in  working  with, 
transporting,  or  packing  them. 

5.  The  displacement  of  particularly  dangerous  labor  methods 
and  materials  by  the  introduction  of  less  dangerous  labor  proc- 
esses and  materials,  as  well  as  by  the  employment  of  materials 
satisfactorily  pure  chemically. 

6.  Instruction  of  workmen  just  entering  upon  an  occupation 
concerning  the  properties  of  the  poisonous  substance  extracted, 
manufactured,  used,  or  otherwise  evolved,  and,  whenever  pos- 
sible, cautionary  leaflets  should  be  put  into  the  hands  of  the 
workers. 

7.  The  repetition  of  this  instruction  at  frequent  intervals. 

8.  Posting  of  precautionary  regulations  and  warning  placards 
containing  admonitions  for  the  exercise  of  special  caution,  and 
enjoining  the  observance  of  measures  for  insuring  safety.  Con- 
stant supervision  of  all  dangerous  employments  by  expert  and 
responsible  persons. 

87 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

9.  Employment  of  appropriate  means  for  personal  protection, 
as  work  clothes,  caps,  gloves,  goggles,  and,  as  necessary  adjuncts, 
mouth  and  nose  shields,  respiratory  masks,  and  the  like,  in  case 
the  appliances  named  in  rule  3  are  inapplicable. 

10.  Practice  of  bodily  cleanlinCvSS  by  the  use  of  wash,  bath, 
and  dressing  rooms,  the  use  of  special  rooms  for  eating,  separate 
wardrobes  for  street  and  work  clothes,  and  frequent,  non-hazard- 
ous cleansing  of  the  clothing. 

11.  Immediate  report  of  symptoms  of  indisposition,  attention 
to  wounds  of  the  skin  caused  by  the  handling  of  corrosive  ma- 
terials, the  speediest  employment  of  an  unexceptionable  antidote 
giving  promise  of  success  at  the  very  first  symptoms  of  poisoning, 
with  the  simultaneous  summoning  of  the  physician. 

12.  The  installation  of  a  healthy  working  force  capable  of 
withstanding  exposure  to  the  poisons.  Temporary  or  permanent 
exclusion  of  sick  workmen  from  the  dangerous  departments  of 
the  industry.  Medical  examination  of  the  workers  in  dangerous 
employments  at  suitable  intervals.  Under  certain  circumstances 
there  should  be  a  change  of  work  in  occupations  giving  rise  to 
chronic  poisoning. 

13.  The  utmost  possible  reduction  of  the  hours  of  labor  in 
dangerous  employments. 


REMOVAL  OF  DANGEROUS  FUMES,  VAPORS,  AND 

GASES 

Recommendations  covering  the  technical  points  involved 
in  the  proper  installation  of  hoods  and  exhaust  systems  are 
so  easily  available  that  only  the  general  requirements  will  be 
touched  upon  in  this  section.  For  those  seeking  an  intensive 
treatment  of  the  subject  there  is  recommended  a  study  of  Bulle- 
tin No.  82,  of  the  Department  of  Labor,  State  of  New  York, 
from  which  publication  many  of  the  statements  and  recommenda- 
tions given  in  the  following  paragraphs  are  drafted. 

In  the  section  devoted  to  sand-blasting  (p.  34)  attention  is 
directed  to  the  removal  of  dust  by  means  of  a  downward  air- 
draft.  While  such  a  system  may  obtain  to  advantage  where  it  is 
desired  to  remove  stone  or  wood  dust  or  heavy  gases,  for  the 

88 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

removal  of  such  fumes  and  vapors  as  exist  in  most  manufactur- 
ing operations  it  is  the  upward  air-draft  that  is  employed.  If 
it  is  not  practicable  to  employ  either  downward  or  upward  air- 
currents,  a  lateral  system  may  be  used. 

Light  vapors  and  gases  which  have  a  temperature  higher  than 
the  outside  air  will  rise  through  a  pipe  or  chimney  without  neces- 
sitating the  provision  of  a  forced  draft.     It  is,  however,  usually 


^^^p^ 

^ 

^^^^^^H                                     .jr.-  -11 

1 

\ 

i 

t  i 

■fa    1 

^mKfmf  \-  ^j^ 

bd 

Fig-  33- — Ventilating  System  for  Removing  Acid  Fumes.  The  suction 
opening  is  below  the  operator's  breathing  line,  and  no  fumes  reach  his  face. 
American  Museum  of  Safety. 


found  advisable  to  install  hoods  and  create  artificial  currents 
which  will  dispose  of  the  fumes  and  vapors  as  closely  as  possible 
to  their  source  and  immediately  upon  their  emanation.  Poison- 
ous fumes  may  otherwise  escape  into  the  general  atmosphere 
during  the  time  before  the  acid  or  other  substance  from  which 
they  are  arising  has  been  sufficiently  heated  to  create  the  natural 
draft. 

89 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

If  it  is  difficult  to  secure  a  continuous  upward  air-current,  it 
will  be  usually  found  that  the  trouble  is  due  to  the  situation  of 
the  chimney  being  such  that  the  wind  pressure  deflected  down- 
ward into  it  is  greater  than  the  circulating  pressure  within  the 
chimney.  Such  a  condition  is  often  found  where  a  chimney  is 
located  near  a  wall  or  building  which  is  higher  than  the  stack. 
The  remedy  is  to  raise  the  outlet  above  the  obstruction  to  the 
wind,  thus  removing  the  impediment  which  has  caused  the  down- 
ward deflection. 

The  double  hood  has  been  recognized  as  especially  efficient 
in  removing  vapors  and  gases.  In  its  construction  there  is  a 
"clearance  of  one  inch  between  the  inner  and  the  outer  walls  at 
the  edges,  at  which  there  should  be  a  minimum  velocity  of  air  at 
not  less  than  looo  feet  per  minute,  and  200  feet  per  minute  over 
the  central  area  of  the  hood. 

"  The  mouth  of  the  hood  should  extend  over  the  furnace,  vat, 
or  machine  at  least  six  inches  in  every  direction,  if  the  hood  is 
elevated  not  more  than  two  feet.  For  every  additional  two  feet 
of  elevation  such  hoods  must  be  increased  six  inches  in  all  direc- 
tions. The  farther  away  from  the  vat,  the  less  effective  the  hood 
will  be.  The  outer  wall  should  be  extended  an  inch  or  two  down- 
ward below  the  inner  shell,  which  makes  it  more  effective  in 
catching  rising  fumes  than  it  would  be  if  both  walls  were  of  the 
same  length.  The  opening  at  the  apex  of  the  hood,  together  with 
the  area  at  the  base  between  the  inner  and  outer  wall,  should 
equal  the  area  of  the  pipe  or  branch  pipe  from  the  top  of  the  hood. 
A  still  further  advantage  of  the  double  hood  is  that  air-currents 
from  windows  and  doors  do  not  affect  the  upward  movement  of 
air  in  these  hoods  as  readily  as  in  the  single  type.  The  diameter 
of  the  pipe  leading  from  the  apex  of  the  hood  should  be  approxi- 
mately one-third  the  area  of  the  surface  from  which  the  fumes 


SPRAY  PROCESS  HAZARDS 

The  spray  process  of  applying  the  finish  on  a  multitude  of 
articles — from  toys  to  passenger  coaches — has  within  recent  years 
almost  entirely  superseded  former  methods  of  application  by  hand- 
brush  or  dipping.     Colors,  fillings,  shellacs,  lacquers,  varnishes, 

90 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 


et  cetera,  and  metallic  coatings  as  well,  of  aluminum,  copper, 
lead,  nickel,  tin,  and  zinc,  are  now  generally  ''sprayed"  on  by 
means  of  compressed  air. 

In  order  to  make  possible  the  spray  application  of  coatings  of 
the  kind  mentioned,  they  must  be  in  a  fluid  state  in  order  to 
facilitate  the  even  spreading  of  the  finish.  From  certain  of  the 
solvents  employed  there 
are  fumes  and  gases  against 
which  protection  must  be 
provided.  In  another  sec- 
tion (p.  92)  wood  alcohol 
has  been  mentioned  as  a 
frequently  used  solvent  for 
shellacs  and  varnishes,  and 
the  fumes  of  this  as  well  as 
of  other  solvents  and  driers 
must  be  eliminated  to  make 
the  spray  process  safe  for 
the  operator. 

In  regard  to  protection 
from  fumes  and  vapors 
arising  in  the  use  of  the 
spray  process  for  coating 
small  articles,  the  following 
recommendation  appears 
in  Bulletin  No.  82  of  the 
New  York  State  Depart- 
ment of  Labor,  from  which 
quotation  has  previously 
been  made: 

"Such  work  should  be 
performed  with  an  inclosed  hood  varying  in  size  according  to  the 
size  of  the  article  to  be  coated.  The  conical  portion  of  the  hood 
should  be  in  the  direction  of  the  flow  from  the  spray  brush,  with 
a  pipe  leading  from  it  of  an  area  not  less  than  one-sixteenth  of 
the  cross-sectional  area  of  the  hood,  with  a  minimum  air  velocity 
of  5800  feet  per  minute,  corresponding  to  two  inches  static  suc- 
tion.    It  is  wise,  when  providing  a  fan  in  the  pipe,  to  place  it  at 

91 


Fig.  34. — Applying  a  finish  by  the 
spray  process,  showing  hood  and  exhaust 
for  removal  of  noxious  fumes.  American 
Museum  of  Safety. 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

a  point  as  remote  from  the  hood  as  possible,  or  arrange  to  readily 
detach  the  fan,  in  order  to  clean  it  of  material  which  attaches  it- 
self to  the  blades." 

Primarily,  the  operators  should  be  warned  of  the  dangers 
incident  to  the  particular  spraying  process  in  which  they  are 
engaged.  The  maintenance  of  the  exhaust  system  employed 
should  be  carefully  watched  to  see  that  exhaust  pipes  are 
not  clogged  with  paint,  varnish,  shellac,  or  other  materials 
sprayed. 

'*  Cabinets  should  not  be  straight  along  the  back  and  top,  but 
should  be  curved  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  cone  or  funnel,  shaped  so 
that  a  uniform  draft  may  be  had  at  all  times  and  in  all  places. 
Cabinets  that  have  a  good  draft  are  often  too  shallow,  so  that  the 
spray  rolls  out  and  envelops  the  operator  before  it  can  be  drawn 
away  by  the  exhaust  system.  Operators  should  be  taught  how 
to  use  the  spray  so  that  the  fumes  from  it  will  be  kept  inside  the 
hood  or  cabinet,  so  far  as  possible.  If,  for  example,  the  pistol  is 
held  so  that  the  spray  strikes  the  work  at  right  angles,  the  vapors 
from  it  are  almost  sure  to  envelop  the  operator,  and  at  such  a 
time  he  can  hardly  avoid  inhaling  them."* 

The  article  above  referred  to  also  advises  against  the  employ- 
ment of  any  person  who  is  near-sighted  for  such  work  as  this. 
It  is  a  valuable  suggestion,  as  the  matter  of  a  few  inches  will 
remove  one  from  the  area  of  poisonous  vapor,  and  the  near- 
sighted operator  must,  of  course,  bend  closer  toward  his  work 
than  will  one  with  normal  vision.  The  same  argument  applies 
forcibly  to  the  provision  of  good  lighting.  Daylight  or  artificial 
light  should  be  completely  adequate  for  accomplishing  all  parts 
of  the  spraying  without  straining  in  watching  the  application  of 
coating. 

METHYL  ALCOHOL  (WOOD  ALCOHOL) 

Case:  A D was  blinded  from  inhaling  the  fumes  of  Columbian  Spirits 

(a  trade  name  for  purified  wood  alcohol)  which  it  was  alleged  by  the  victim 
had  been  used  as  a  solvent  for  shellac  which  he  was  using  in  painting  the  in- 
terior of  beer  vats  at  a  brewery.  He  brought  suit  for  damages,  the  case  coming 
to  trial  in  the  Supreme  Court,  New  York  City.     The  jury  awarded  the  plain- 

*  "The  Travelers'  Standard,"  September,  1917. 
92 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

tiflf  $25,000  damages.     This  verdict  was  set  aside  by  the  presiding  judge.     The 
case  has  been  appealed  and  is  still  in  the  courts. 

The  foregoing  is  but  one  of  many  cases  of  impaired  vision, 
blindness,  and  death  resulting  from  the  use  of  methyl  (wood) 
alcohol.  In  fact,  one  investigator  has  recorded  more  than  1 000 
casualties  which  have  occurred  during  the  past  twenty  years  due 
to  the  use  of  this  poison.* 

The  harmful  physiologic  action  of  wood  alcohol  may  be  in- 
duced by  breathing  its  fumes,  by  taking  it  internally,  or  by  ab- 
sorption through  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  body.  Its  effect 
is  usually  noticeable  very  shortly  after  exposure,  though  this  does 
not  necessarily  follow.  It  usually  acts  as  an  acute  poison.  As 
before  stated,  vision  may  become  impaired,  total  blindness  occur, 
or  death  itself  result.  It  appears,  however,  that  there  are  some 
persons  who  are  practically  immune  to  any  toxic  effect  from  this 
poison. 

The  wood  alcohol  used  in  the  United  States  is  obtained  chiefly 
from  the  destructive  distillation  of  'wood — hard  wood,  birch, 
beech,  maple,  oak,  elm,  and  alder  being  best  for  the  purpose. 
A  most  lucid  description  of  the  process  of  distillation  may  be 
found  in  the  report  of  Charles  Baskerville,  Ph.D.,  F.C.S.,  ap- 
pearing as  Appendix  Six  of  the  Second  Report  of  the  New  York 
State  Factory  Investigating  Commission,  submitted  to  the  Legis- 
lature January  15,  1913.  After  distillation,  refinement,  et  cetera, 
the  final  product  thus  obtained  is  commercial  wood  alcohol, 
usually  sold  at  95  per  cent,  strength  by  Tralles'  Alcoholometer. 
It  contains  from  10  per  cent,  to  20  per  cent,  acetone  and  varying 
proportions  of  other  organic  impurities. 

The  chief  uses  to  which  it  is  put  are  for  the  denaturing  of 
ethyl  or  grain  alcohol ;  for  various  purposes  in  lines  of  common 
manufacture;  as  an  ingredient  in  medical  and  pharmaceutical 
preparations ;  in  the  chemical  industries  and  as  a  fuel  and  illumi- 
nant. 

In  1906,  Congress,  following  the  lead  of  European  countries, 
enacted  a  law  permitting  the  general  use  of  a  tax-free  industrial 

*  "Wood  Alcohol.  A  Report  on  the  Chemistry,  Technology  and  Pharma- 
cology of  and  the  Legislation  Pertaining  to  Methyl  Alcohol,"  Charles  Bas- 
kerville, Ph.D.,  F.C.S. 

93 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

domestic  alcohol  in  order  to  stimulate  industrial  purposes  for 
which  the  high  cost  of  grain  alcohol  was  prohibitive.  Denatural- 
ization is  required  at  the  source  of  manufacture  by  the  addition 
of  certain  substances  which  destroy  the  suitability  of  the  ethyl 
alcohol  for  purposes  other  than  those  which  the  passage  of  the 
law  was  intended  to  benefit.  Of  the  various  denaturing  agepts, 
wood  alcohol  is  chief.     In  the  Federal  law  it  is  specified  that  the 


Fig-  35- — Wood  vats. 


Varnishers  must  be  supplied  with  artificial  ventilating 
apparatus. 


denaturalization  of  the  ethyl  alcohol  shall  occur  **in  the  pres- 
ence and  under  the  direction  of  an  authorized  government  officer, 
with  methyl  alcohol  or  other  denaturing  material  or  materials 
or  admixtures  of  the  same  which  will  destroy  its  character  as  a 
beverage  and  render  it  unfit  for  liquid  medicinal  purposes." 

In  the  arts  and  crafts  wood  alcohol  is  used  in  the  making  of 
hats,  artificial  flowers,  incandescent  mantles,  et  cetera.     It  is  an 

94 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

excellent  solvent  for  shellacs,  varnishes,  and  finishes  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  pencils,  rattan  goods,  toys,  passenger  coaches, 
carriages,  furniture,  pianos,  organs,  picture  molding,  and  most 
recently  in  the  manufacture  of  aeroplanes. 

As  a  solvent  for  lacquers  and  enamels  wood  alcohol  appears 
in  the  manufacture  of  brass  beds,  hardware,  lighting  fixtures, 
patent  leather  shoes,  leather  clothing,  et  cetera. 


Fig.  36. — Glass-lined  steel  vats,  which  do  not  require  varnishing. 


In  the  chemical  industries  it  is  used  primarily  as  a  solvent  for 
fats,  volatile  oils,  camphor,  resins,  gums,  varnishes,  stains,  shel- 
lacs, alkalis,  and  various  salts,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  cellu- 
loid, et  cetera.  In  substances  like  that  last  mentioned  the  alcohol 
does  not  remain  as  a  hazard  in  the  finished  product,  and  is  there- 
fore dangerous  only  as  it  may  be  used  in  the  process  of  manufac- 
turing, whereas  in  varnishes  and  shellacs  the  wood  alcohol  remains 

95 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

as  such  and  may  prove  deleterious  either  through  the  inhalation 
of  its  fumes  or  through  its  being  drawn  off  from  the  varnish  and 
drunk,  as  is  occasionally  done  by  those  ignorant  of  the  danger. 

In  the  chemical  industries  it  is  likewise  used  as  an  extractive — 
in  the  manufacture  of  smokeless  powder,  fulminate  of  mercury, 
and  other  explosives,  and  as  a  reagent  for  the  detection  of  salicylic 
acid,  the  determination  of  boric  acid,  the  preparation  of  grape- 
sugar,  and  as  a  substitute  for  ethyl  alcohol  for  other  purposes. 

In  pharmaceutic  and  medicinal  preparations  it  is  also  used  as 
an  extractive,  it  being  said  to  give  a  better  yield  than  ethyl  al- 
cohol for  many  substances,  such  as  belladonna,  nux  vomica, 
jalap,  resin,  et  cetera.  It  is  substituted  for  ethyl  alcohol  in 
washes,  tinctures,  liniments,  patent  medicines,  extracts,  and 
essences,  such  as  Jamaica  ginger,  lemon  extract,  witch-hazel, 
bay-rum,  numerous  cosmetic  preparations.  In  the  preparation 
of  synthetic  drugs  it  appears  in  the  making  of  artificial  oil 
of  wintergreen,  gallicin,  methylal,  methylene-blue,  methylene 
chloride,  et  al. 

Wood  alcohol  is  likewise  used  to  very  considerable  extent  as 
fuel,  to  some  extent  as  an  illuminant,  and  as  a  cleaning  fluid. 

For  many  of  the  uses  cited  in  the  foregoing,  denatured  alcohol 
serves  every  purpose  of  wood  alcohol. 

In  normal  times  the  denatured  product  is  as  cheap  as  wood 
alcohol, — occasionally  cheaper, — and  has  none  of  the  dangers 
attendant  upon  the  use  of  the  latter. 

There  are  certain  purposes  for  which  the  use  of  wood  alcohol 
appears  to  be  necessary.  Wherever  such  is  the  case,  its  use 
should  be  most  carefully  guarded  in  order  to  conserve  the  vision, 
health,  and  lives  of  those  who  may  be  exposed  to  its  poisonous 
qualities. 

So  far  as  the  general  public  is  concerned — those  who  are  not 
engaged  in  occupations  in  which  wood  alcohol  must  be  used — the 
chief  danger  lies  in  the  unrestricted  sale  of  this  poison,  a  liberty 
which  thus  makes  it  possible  for  unscrupulous  dealers  to  substi- 
tute it  for  grain  alcohol  in  the  preparation  of  medicines,  liquors, 
essences,  cosmetics,  et  cetera,  as  have  been  mentioned. 

It  has  been  but  a  few  months  since  an  artisan  of  New  York  was 
blinded  by  drinking  a  cordial  which  to  all  appearances  was  a 

96 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

genuine  Italian  liquor,  but  which,  following  the  catastrophe 
which  befell  the  victim,  was  found  to  have  been  spuriously  manu- 
factured in  this  country,  and  upon  analysis  showed  nearly  50  per 
cent,  wood  alcohol.  In  the  knowledge  that  but  one  teaspoonful  of 
this  poison  taken  internally  may  cause  blindness,  it  is  evident  how 
great  a  danger  there  is  in  permitting  its  unrestricted  sale  and  use. 

In  spite  of  the  educational  and  legislative  campaign  which 
has  been  carried  on  for  the  protection  of  the  public  during  recent 
years,  wood  alcohol  is  still  being  manufactured  and  sold  under 
misleading  trade  names,  among  which  are  Columbian  Spirits, 
Essence  Niobe,  Peau  d'Espagne,  and  Colonial  Spirits,  which  in 
themselves  or  in  their  abbreviations  may  prove  misleading  not 
only  to  the  ignorant,  but  also  to  those  who  know  the  poisonous 
quality  of  methyl  alcohol — for  the  deodorized,  purified  product  is 
extremely  difficult  to  distinguish  from  grain  alcohol.  Blindness 
or  death  has  resulted  in  many  cases  among  those  who,  being  un- 
able to  purchase  intoxicating  liquors,  have  drunk  Jamaica  ginger, 
lemon  extract,  or  patent  medicines  in  which  wood  alcohol  has 
been  used. 

Investigation  by  health  boards  and  individuals  specially  in- 
terested has  disclosed  the  fact  that  it  has  not  been  an  infrequent 
procedure  for  barbers  to  use  wood  alcohol  instead  of  grain  alco- 
hol in  making  up  cosmetic  preparations,  bay-rum,  and  witch- 
hazel.     In  New  York  city  the  Sanitary  Code  now  requires*  that 

*  The  following  amendment  to  the  New  York  City  Sanitary  Code  was 
adopted  by  the  Department  of  Health  July  28,  1914,  to  take  effect  September 
I,  1914: 

Section  66A,  No  person  shall  sell,  offer  for  sale,  deal  in  or  supply,  or 
have  in  his  possession  with  intent  to  sell,  offer  for  sale,  give  away,  deal  in  or 
supply  any  article  of  food  or  drink,  or  any  medicinal  or  toilet  preparation,  in- 
tended for  human  use  internally  or  externally,  which  contains  any  wood 
naphtha,  otherwise  known  as  wood  alcohol,  or  methyl  alcohol,  either  crude  or 
refined,  under  or  by  whatever  name  or  trade  mark  the  same  may  be  called  or 
known,  unless  the  container  in  which  the  same  is  sold,  offered  for  sale,  given 
away,  dealt  in  or  supplied,  shall  bear  a  notice  containing  the  following  device 
and  words  conspicuously  printed  or  stencilled  thereon,  viz. : 

SKULL  AND  SKULL  AND 

CROSSBONES  POISON  CROSSBONES 

WOOD  NAPHTHA 
OR  WOOD  ALCOHOL 
WARNING — It  is  unlawful  to  use  this  fluid  in  any  article  of  food, 
beverage,  or  medicinal  or  toilet  preparation  for  human  use  inter- 
nally or  externally 

7  97 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

the  label  on  any  container  in  which  wood  alcohol  is  sold  shall 
plainly  indicate  the  contents,  and  that  the  conventional  poison 
label  shall  likewise  be  prominently  displayed  thereon. 

The  New  York  City  Department  of  Health  during  the  year 
1914  instituted  proceedings  against  85  barbers  and  dealers  in 
barbers'  supplies  who  were  detected  using  wood  alcohol  instead 
of  grain  alcohol.  These  cases  were  tried  in  the  Court  of  Special 
Sessions,  and  sentence  imposed  as  follows: 

Jail  sentences i  (thirty  days) 

Fines 26 

Sentences  suspended 51 

Cases  discharged 7 

A  total  of  $1095  in  fines  was  imposed,  the  largest  of  these 
being  for  $250. 

Recommendations:  Wood  alcohol,  or  any  fluid  containing 
wood  alcohol,  should  be  labeled  on  its  container  as  a  poison,  with 
the  warning  plainly  displayed  to  the  effect  that,  taken  internally, 
it  may  cause  blindness  or  death.  The  usual  poison  designation — 
the  skull  and  cross-bones — should  appear  prominently.  In- 
clusion of  a  further  warning  that  the  fumes  of  wood  alcohol  in- 
haled in  an  insufficiently  ventilated  place  are  likewise  injurious 
to  eyesight  is  an  advisable  precautionary  measure  which  has 
already  been  adopted  in  Montana. 

The  use  of  wood  alcohol  in  any  food,  condiment,  flavoring 
extract,  or  liquid  capable  of  being  used  in  whole  or  in  part  as 
a  beverage  or  as  a  medicine  should  be  prohibited  by  law. 

In  order  to  protect  workers  who  might  be  exposed  to  its 
fumes,  exhaust  systems  should  obtain  wherever  needed,  and  legis- 
lation or  regulations  enforced  which  would  require  that  ventila- 
tion by  artificial  means  where  necessary  be  provided  in  such 
operations  as  the  varnishing  of  inclosed  vats,  where  the  workers 
are  particularly  exposed  to  the  poisonous  fumes.  In  the  varnish 
rooms  of  furniture  factories  and  the  like,  where  these  fumes  may 
be  constant,  ample  ventilation  should  be  provided,  the  standards 
of  same  to  be  determined  in  each  case  by  the  Board  of  Health, 
or  such  board,  with  authority,  as  may  be  designated.  Many 
breweries  now  use  glass-lined  vats,  thus  eliminating  the  necessity 
of  varnishing. 

98     > 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

Where  workmen  are  forced  to  dip  their  hands  and  arms  into 
substances  of  which  wood  alcohol  is  an  ingredient,  they  should  be 
provided  with  arm  coverings  impervious  to  the  effect  of  the 
liquid. 

Baskerville  emphasizes  the  need  for  a  clearer  understanding 
of  the  fact  that  in  certain  processes  in  which  wood  alcohol  is 
employed  it  becomes  a  constituent  part  of  the  final  product,  and 
is  not  thereafter  a  hazard.  In  all  processes  in  which  it  remains 
as  wood  alcohol,  the  dangers  attendant  upon  its  use  should  be 
most  carefully  guarded  against. 

BOTTLING  ACCIDENTS 

Workers  engaged  in  bottling  aerated  liquids  are  subject  to 
injuries  from  bottle  breakage.  Bartenders  and  soda-fountain 
tenders  have  been  injured  occasionally  by  flying  corks  and  by 
pieces  of  glass  from  bottles  which  have  unexpectedly  broken 
as  a  result  of  gaseous  pressure  during  the  bottling,  wiring  or 
capping  process. 

The  number  of  bottles  that  burst  is  very  considerable,  and 
it  is  rather  remarkable  to  note  that  new  bottles  and  siphons  are 
more  apt  to  break  than  are  old  ones.  Siphons  burst  less  fre- 
quently, but  the  explosion  and  danger  are  greater.  The  use  of 
goggles,  and  a  wire  screening,  or  other  substantial  guard,  placed 
between  the  danger  point  and  the  workman,  will  provide  the 
necessary  protection. 

MINING  AND  QUARRYING 

Case:    MINER'S  EYES   BLOWN  OUT   BY  AN   EXPLOSION.     A 

Y, a  Russian,  aged  thirty-two   years,  having  a  wife  and  two  children, 

residing  at  F ,  lost  the  sight  of  both  eyes  in  a  dynamite  explosion  which  oc- 
curred yesterday  morning.     Y had  prepared  a  blast  of  several  dynamite 

sticks  and  ignited  the  same.  When  there  was  no  discharge  he  went  back  to 
investigate,  as  many  an  ill-fated  workman  has  done,  despite  warning  and  man- 
dates of  mine  laws.  He  had  just  reached  the  place  when  a  terrific  explosion 
took  place,  blowing  out  his  eyes  and  studding  his  face  with  powder  and  shot 
wounds. — Shamokin,  Pennsylvania,  Dispatch,  April  28,  1Q16. 

In  blasting  operations,  in  mining  and  quarrying,  or  in  ex- 
cavating for  the  foundations  of  new  buildings,  street  repairs, 

99 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

etc.,  workmen  are  frequently  injured  by  premature  explosions 
occurring  at  times  in  the  preparation  of  the  charge,  due  to  care- 
less handling  when  using  electric  firing  devices  through  touching 
electric  wires  and  in  other  cases  through  careless  handling  of  the 
detonators  or  blasting  caps.  The  use  of  too  short  fuses  likewise 
is  a  prominent  factor  in  the  occurrence  of  premature  explosions. 

As  in  the  case  cited,  misfires  are  also  the  cause  of  many  serious 
accidents.  Misfires  or  individual  failures  are  more  likely  to 
occur  with  fuse  than  with  electric  shot  firing.  Unfortunately, 
where  there  are  a  very  large  number  of  shots  to  be  fired  at  one 
time,  the  miners  prefer  to  use  the  fuse,  although  electricity  is 
far  safer.  Their  preference  is  doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that  in 
connecting  up  a  large  number  of  shots  electrically  it  requires 
great  care  to  see  that  the  circuits  are  complete. 

With  the  use  of  the  fuse,  shots  can  be  arranged  to  go  off  in  a 
certain  rotation.  Sometimes,  however,  a  near-shot  may  cut  ofT  the 
fuse  of  another  and  in  this  way  there  results  an  unexploded  charge. 

The  condition  of  sometimes  having  cartridges  in  the  "muck" 
or  broken  rock  is  not  uncommon,  and  the  only  way  to  prevent 
trouble  is  to  clean  up  very  carefully  where  it  is  suspected  that 
one  of  the  shots  has  not  gone  off.  In  electric  firing  this  is  difficult 
to  determine — and  sometimes  is  with  fuses  if  many  shots  are 
being  fired  at  short  intervals. 

Misfires  have  been  known  to  "hang  fire"  for  two  or  more 
hours,  and  because  of  that  fact  excessive  precautions  should  be 
taken  if  the  least  doubt  exists  as  to  the  firing  of  all  shots — miners 
to  delay  half  an  hour,  or  better — several  hours,  before  going  back. 

The  following  method  of  handling  hang-fires  has  been  sug- 
gested to  the  author  by  Mr.  S.  P.  Howell,  Explosives  Engineer, 
Bureau  of  Mines,  Experiment  Station,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  It  is 
one  which  has  not  as  yet  been  officially  adopted  by  the  Bureau, 
but  is  presented  on  its  merits: 

Where  a  shot  is  encountered  that  has  misfired,  it  should  not 
be  approached  even  for  the  purpose  of  inspection  until  thirty 
minutes  have  elapsed  if  squibs  were  used ;  three  hours  if  fuse  were 
used,  and  ten  minutes  if  electric  detonators  or  electric  igniters 
were  used,  and  preferably  longer,  lest  the  trouble  be  a  hang-fire 
and  not  a  misfire. 

100 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

The  first  inspection  of  a  shot  that  has  misfired  should  be 
to  determine  whether  or  not  the  cause  be  outside  of  the  drill  hole. 
It  may  be  that  the  squib  has  not  left  the  mouth  of  the  drill  hole, 
that  the  fuse  has  not  burned  to  the  mouth  of  the  drill  hole,  or 
that  the  leg  of  the  electric  devices  (electric  detonators  or  electric 
igniters)  or  the  leading  wire  is  short-circuited  or  open-circuited 
outside  the  drill  hole,  or  that  the  blasting  machine  did  not  pro- 
vide adequate  current.  If  the  cause  lies  outside  of  the  drill  hole, 
it  may  be  remedied  without  disturbing  the  charge.  Where  a 
misfire  has  occurred  in  a  hole  containing  electric  devices, 
the  blasting  machine  should  be  promptly  disconnected  and 
removed. 

If  it  is  definitely  established  that  the  trouble  is  within  the 
drill  hole,  then  it  is  in  general  recommended  that  another  hole 
should  be  drilled  near  enough  to  the  first  charge  so  that  a  charge 
in  the  second  hole  will  explode  or  expose  the  first  charge,  and  far 
enough  from  the  first  charge  so  that  there  is  no  chance  of  the  drill 
striking  the  charge.  Where  practicable  the  holes  should  be 
parallel.  For  short  holes  (six  feet  or  less)  the  separating  dis- 
tance should  be  1 8  inches,  and,  if  possible,  two  feet  or  slightly 
more.  For  deeper  holes  the  separating  distance  should  be  cor- 
respondingly greater. 

Where  all  or  a  portion  of  the  first  charge  is  not  exploded, 
careful  search  should  be  made  for  it,  and  such  search  should  be 
made  without  tools.  Special  effort  should  be  made  to  recover 
the  detonator  or  electric  detonator,  if  either  were  used  in  the 
first  charge.  It  is  recommended  that  before  firing  the  second 
charge  the  fuse  used  with  the  detonator,  or  the  legs  of  the  electric 
detonator,  in  the  first  hole  be  anchored,  with  wire  or  strong  cord, 
outside  the  drill  hole  so  that  if  unexploded  they  may  be  recovered 
more  readily. 

In  certain  special  cases  that  obtain  it  is  desirable  that  an  al- 
ternate method  be  proposed  for  use  if  approved  by  a  responsible 
official.  It  should  always  be  remembered  that  there  is  a  risk 
incident  to  the  disturbing  of  any  charge. 

In  the  case  of  a  black  blasting  powder  charged  to  be  fired 
with  a  squib,  when  it  has  misfired  there  is  nothing  to  prevent 
trying  another  squib  on  it  after  at  least  one  hour  has  elapsed, 
or  another  squib  after  an  additional  hour  or  more  has  elapsed, 
etc.  If  this  fails,  the  stemming  may  be  carefully  withdrawn 
with  a  copper  scraper  and  water  turned  into  the  hole  to  wet 
the  powder  before  it  is  taken  out.  The  scrapings,  including 
the  stemming,  should  be  placed  in  a  closed  receptacle,  taken  to 
the  surface,  and  rendered  immune  by  throwing  it  in  running 
water.     After  drying  out,  the  hole  may  be  recharged. 

lOI 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

High  Explosives  in  Metal  Mines — No  Stemming  Used  in  the 
Hole. — In  the  case  of  these  charges,  if  the  primer  be  nearest  the 
mouth  of  the  drill  hole,  attempt  may  be  made  to  substitute  a  new 
for  the  old  primer  after  the  latter  has  been  carefully  removed,  or  in 
cases  where  electric  detonators  have  been  used  a  new  primer  may 
be  added  without  withdrawing  the  old  one.  Where  insensitive  ex- 
plosives, such  as  gelatin  dynamite,  are  used,  the  new  primer 
should  preferably  be  a  high-grade  straight  nitroglycerin  dynamite. 

Very  careful  consideration  to  shot  firing,  among  other  things 
with  reference  to  explosives,  is  given  in  the  revised  Mining  Code 
for  New  York.  Relative  to  the  prevention  of  premature  shot 
firing,  and  the  recognition  of  misfires,  paragraphs  20  and  21  read 
as  follows: 

"All  power  lines  and  electric  light  wires  shall  be  disconnected 
at  a  point  outside  the  blasting  switch  before  explosives  are  taken 
in  and  leading  of  holes  is  proceeded  with.  No  current  by  ground- 
ing of  power  or  lighting  wires  or  bonded  rails  shall  be  allowed 
beyond  blasting  switch  after  explosives  are  taken  in  preparatory 
to  blasting,  and  under  no  circumstances  shall  grounded  current 
be  used  for  exploding  blasts." 

''When  a  blaster  fires  a' round  of  holes,  he  shall  count  the 
number  of  shots  exploding,  except  in  case  of  instantaneous  blast- 
ing by  electricity.  If  there  are  any  reports  missing,  he  shall 
report  the  same  to  the  gang  boss  or  foreman.  If  a  missed  hole 
has  not  been  fired  at  the  end  of  a  shift,  that  fact,  together  with  the 
position  of  the  hole,  shall  be  reported  by  the  mine  foreman  or 
shift  boss  to  the  mine  foreman  or  shift  boss  in  charge  of  the  next 
relay  of  miners  before  work  is  commenced  by  them.  The  blaster 
shall  not  leave  until  he  has  placed  a  wooden  plug  painted  red  in 
the  mouth  of  the  missed  hole,  if  possible." 

Data  on  this  entire  subject  and  instructions  "covering  correct 
methods  of  firing  blasts  by  electricity  are  so  readily  available* 
that  only  brief  comment  thereon  will  be  made  herein. 

Where  there  are  but  a  few  shots  to  be  fired  in  a  circuit,  the 

*  "A  Primer  on  Explosives  for  Metal  Miners  and  Quarrymen,"  Bulletin 
No.  80,  Bureau  of  Mines,  and  "A  Primer  on  Explosives  for  Coal  Miners," 
Bulletin  No.  17,  with  a  most  comprehensive  list  of  other  publications  on  mine 
accidents  and  tests  of  explosives  are  temporarily  available  for  free  distribu- 
tion, and  interested  persons  may  secure  the  same  by  addressing  the  Director, 
Bureau  of  Mines,  Washington,  D.  C. 

102 


EYE    HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

miner  who  is  to  act  as  shot  firer  may  find  it  possible  to  use  a  Hght, 
portable  firing  machine  which  he  can  carry  about  until  ready  to 
use,  thus  insuring  against  premature  firing  by  any  other  person. 
Such  small  devices,  however,  can  at  best  be  used  only  for  light 
blasts. 

Machines  for  the  firing  of  a  large  series  should  be  tested  at 
frequent  intervals  to  ascertain  whether  they  are  being  over- 
loaded. Batteries  of  insufficient  strength  for  firing  heavy  blasts, 
or  large  series,  are  often  responsible  for  the  occurrence  of  misfires. 

Leakage  from  the  electric  main  to  the  earth  and  then  through 
the  leading  wires  and  connections,  which  may  have  become  bared 
through  rough  handling,  or  as  the  result  of  improper  insulation, 
may  provide  an  unexpected  current  which  will  cause  a  premature 
blast. 

Regarding  explosions  from  stray  currents,  Mr.  S.  P.  Howell, 
hitherto  referred  to,  makes  the  following  recommendation: 

''Where  there  is  any  evidence  of  stray  currents,  a  precaution- 
ary measure  against  the  danger  therefrom  is  to  twist  the  ends  of 
the  legs  of  the  electric  detonator  or  of  the  electric  igniter  together. 
This  is  a  very  effective  way  of  preventing  a  current  from  passing 
through  the  bridge  of  these  devices  by  short-circuiting  them. 
Care  should  be  taken,  however,  in  connecting  up  the  leading  wires 
to  the  legs,  to  be  sure  that  the  legs  are  separated." 

For  the  final  testing  of  the  firing  line,  in  order  to  show  that  the 
circuit  is  complete  and  that  there  is  no  leakage  in  the  wires,* 

"a  special  galvanometer  may  be  used,  together  with  a  battery 
such  as  many  of  the  manufacturers  of  explosives  now  sell.  This 
galvanometer,  like  others,  bears  on  its  face  a  needle,  which  is 
turned  or  deflected  when  an  electric  current  is  present  in  the 
system.  By  noting  whether  this  needle  is  or  is  not  deflected  one 
can  tell  whether  the  circuit  is  open  or  closed,  and  the  extent  of 
the  deflection  shows  just  what  resistance  there  is  in  the  circuit. 
To  use  the  galvanometer,  the  wires  leading  from  it  are  connected 
to  the  two  binding  posts  of  the  firing  machine  to  which  the  wires 
leading  to  the  charge  have  already  been  connected,  and  the  de- 
flection is  then  noted.  The  current  generated  by  the  weak  bat- 
tery cell  attached  to  the  galvanometer  should  not  be  strong 
enough  to  fire  the  electric  detonator  used  in  the  bore  holes,  but 
should  be  strong  enough  to  deflect  the  galvanometer  needle." 

*  "  A  Primer  on  Explosives  for  Metal  Miners  and  Quarrymen,"  pp.  52,  53. 

103 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

"The  testing  galvanometer,  with  its  attached  battery,  should 
never  be  applied  directly  to  the  face  to  be  blasted,  even  when  it  is 
being  used  to  find  out  which  of  the  electric  igniters  or  electric 
detonators  are  defective,  after  the  test  has  shown  no  current. 
The  tests  for  the  separate  detonators  or  igniters  should  always 
be  made  through  leading  wires  sufficiently  long  to  allow  the  per- 
son making  the  tests  to  stand  where  he  will  be  perfectly  safe  in 
case  the  blast  should  be  fired,  and  on  no*account  should  this  test- 
ing of  the  igniters  or  detonators  be  made  while  any  person  is  so 
near  that  he  may  be  in  danger  from  the  blast." 


Fig-  37- — Crimping  detonator  on  fuse.     United  States  Bureau  of  Mines. 


In  the  handling  of  explosives  by  miners  and  quarrymen,  there 
is  always  the  hazard  from  carelessness  or  recklessness  on  the  part 
of  the  individual.  Perhaps  in  no  single  operation  is  this  more 
evident  than  in  crimping  blasting  caps  onto  fuses.  Electric 
detonators  do  not  require  crimping,  as  the  lead  wires  are  already 
inserted  in  the  detonator.  They  are,  because  of  the  nature  of 
their  explosive  content,  extremely  sensitive  to  heat,  friction  or 
blows,  and  are  extremely  violent  in  their  explosion.  The  methods 
of  accident  prevention  from  this  source  are  summed  up  as  follows 
in  "A  Primer  on  Explosives  for  Metal  Miners  and  Quarrymen": 


These  devices  should  be  treated  with  the  utmost  respect. 

104 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

''Never  attempt  to  pick  out  any  of  the  composition. 

"  Do  not  drop  them  or  strike  them  violently  against  any  hard 
body. 

'*Do  not  lay  them  on  the  ground  where  they  may  be  stepped 
on. 

"In  crimping,  take  the  greatest  care  not  to  squeeze  the  com- 
position, and  never  crimp  with  the  teeth,  for  there  is  enough 
composition  in  one  of  these  small  capsules  to  blow  a  man's  head 
open." 

That  the  warning  contained  in  the  preceding  paragraph  is 
not  a  needless  one  is  evidenced  by  the  known  accidents  that  have 
resulted  from  just  such  careless  procedure.  One  safety  engineer 
has  recently  brought  to  the  author's  attention  a  case  where  a 
man's  entire  face  and  jaws  were  blown  off  by  the  explosion  of  a 
cap  that  he  was  crimping  around  the  fuse  with  his  teeth. 

Crimpers  of  various  types  are  always  available,  and  their 
use  not  only  provides  for  a  more  efficient  sealing  of  the  detonator, 
but  is  the  only  safe  practice  for  this  operation. 


GOGGLES  FOR  QUARRYMEN 
In  many  quarries  visited  by  the  author  it  has  been  noted  that 
the  men  who  are  engaged  in  chipping,  either  in  the  open  cuts  or 
in  the  works,  are  not  equipped  with  protective  goggles,  and  as  a 
consequence  thereof  there  are  many  abrasive  and  penetrative 
wounds  of  the  eyes  constantly  occurring.  In  one  of  the  great 
quarry  centers  in  Minnesota  it  was  found  that  practically  none 
of  the  operators  had  provided  goggles  for  their  employes. 
Many  of  the  chippers  had  for  their  own  protection  purchased 
cheap  goggles,  which  were  found  to  be  made  of  glass  of  insuffi- 
cient strength  to  resist  the  blow  inflicted  by  even  a  small  chip. 
Moreover,  there  was  no  protection  afforded  by  wire  screens  on 
the  sides  of  goggles,  and  in  none  of  the  works  were  protective 
standing  screens  in  evidence. 

The  same  recommendations  as  obtain  in  the  section  on  Chip- 
ping Operations,  pages  21  to  24,  are  correct  for  the  elimination 
of  these  hazards  in  stone  works. 


105 


EYE   HAZARDS    IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

MINER'S  NYSTAGMUS 

Coal-miners  frequently  work  for  long  periods  in  a  sitting  or 
recumbent  position,  which  requires  the  eyes  to  be  turned  upward 
and  obliquely,  thus  causing  considerable  strain  and  exhaustion 
of  the  ocular  muscles.  As  a  result,  there  occasionally  develops  a 
condition  called  "miner's  nystagmus,"  characterized  by  con- 
tinual short,  rapid  involuntary  movements  of  the  eyeball,  which 
are  chiefly  rotary.  The  rapidity  of  the  ocular  motions  varies 
greatly — from  60  to  150  per  minute,  and  as  many  as  350  motions 
per  minute  having  been  recorded  by  certain  observers.*  The 
author  has  seen  no  definite  statement  as  to  the  percentage  of 
miners  thus  afflicted  in  the  United  States,  although  it  is  believed 
that  the  occurrence  of  this  trouble  is  not  so  frequent  as  in  the 
British  Isles,  where  Snell  reported  approximately  5  per  cent,  of 
miners  as  having  nystagmus.  A  much  higher  estimate  (20  per 
cent.)  is  given  by  Romiee  in  writing  of  conditions  in  Belgium 
some  years  ago. 

The  patient  so  afflicted  will  complain  of  objects  dancing 
before  his  eyes,  headache,  and  other  symptoms,  all  of  which  will 
clear  up  rapidly  if  a  change  of  work  is  made.  "After  relief  has 
been  effected  return  to  the  mine  is  practicable,  provided  the  head 
can  be  kept  straight  and  the  upward  turn  of  the  eyes  avoided. 
Resumption  of  the  old  kind  of  work  is  followed,  sooner  or  later, 
by  a  recurrence  of  the  symptoms.  Medical  treatment  is  also  of 
service."* 

AGRICULTURAL  HAZARDS 

Case:    A B lived  on  a  plantation  16  miles  out  from  New  Orleans, 

was  stretching  a  line  of  barbed  wire,  when  a  staple  flew  out  and  inflicted  an 
ugly  cut  in  his  right  eye.  He  let  the  injury  go  for  several  days,  but  finally 
went  to  the  Eye,  Ear,  Nose  and  Throat  Hospital  of  New  Orleans.  Careful 
treatment  over  a  long  period  healed  the  wound,  although  his  sight  in  that  eye 
is  permanently  impared  because  he  did  not  go  to  the  hospital  soon  enough. 

Case:  Ben  Britzius,  of  Pierre,  a  young  farmer  of  Hughes  County,  was  brought 
to  Aberdeen  and  his  left  eye  was  removed  as  the  result  of  an  accident  while 
shredding  corn  on  his  farm.     It  appears  that  the  belt  slipped  from  the  machine, 

*  Dangerous  Trades  (A  Compilation  of  Articles  on  the  Subject,  by  Thomas 
Oliver),  Chapter  LVHI  (Simeon  Snell). 

106 


EYE   HAZARDS    IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

hurling  a  wire  staple  into  the  man's  eye,  lacerating  the  eyeball  beyond  any 
chance  of  saving  it. — Sioux  Falls,  S.  D.,  Press,  December  8,  191 5. 

Case:  As  the  result  of  an  accident  several  days  ago  Richard  Lowry,  a  promi- 
nent young  man  of  Webster  County,  Saturday  afternoon  suffered  the  removal 
of  his  left  eye  at  the  Americus  Hospital.  Mr.  Lowry,  it  seems,  was  repairing 
a  broken  plow  when  a  piece  of  steel,  filed  off  the  plow-hoe,  lodged  in  his  left 
eye.  He  came  to  Americus  immediately  and  underwent  a  careful  diagnosis. 
It  was  found,  after  the  examination,  that  removal  was  necessary. — Americus, 
Georgia,  Recorder,  January  30,  1916. 

It  is  a  far  cry  from  the  industrial  hazards  to  eyesight  in  the 
machine  shop,  the  foundry,  or  the  laboratory,  to  those  which 
are  found  in  agricultural  pursuits.  In  a  Conservation  of  Vision 
pamphlet  of  the  American  Medical  Association  entitled  "In- 
dustrial and  Household  Accidents  to  the  Eyes,"  prepared  by 
Dr.  Harold  Gifford,  Omaha,  Nebraska,  it  is  stated  that  in  all  but 
the  large  manufacturing  centers  the  majority  of  serious  eye 
accidents  occur  among  agricultural  laborers.  Statistics  cer- 
tainly indicate  that  such  accidents  are  occurring  in  great  number. 
Most  of  them  might  have  been  avoided  by  care.  Many  of  them 
have  resulted  in  infection  and  blindness  because,  as  in  the  first 
case  cited,  days  or  weeks  were  allowed  to  intervene  between  the 
time  when  the  injury  was  sustained  and  the  date  of  calling  in 
an  oculist  or  physician.  Distance  from  town,  ignorance  of  the 
serious  nature  of  the  wound,  dependence  upon  proprietary  reme- 
dies, and  various  other  reasons  are  given  for  these  fatal  delays. 

The  hammering  of  farm  machinery,  home-made  repairing, 
and  the  like,  flying  staples  from  handling  of  barbed-wire  fencing, 
injuries  from  baling  wire,  hooks,  etc.,  head  the  list  of  causes 
responsible  for  these  accidents.  Then  come  what  Dr.  GifTord 
terms  the  "Botanical  Injuries,"  of  which  the  typical  ones  are 
superficial  but  ragged  wounds  of  the  cornea  from  blades  of  corn 
or  beards  of  wheat.  Wood-chopping  injuries  are  common — not 
only  to  the  chopper,  but  to  the  bystander  as  well.  Horning  from 
cows  and  kicks  from  farm  animals  swell  the  list,  and,  finally, 
"the  eye  is  frequently  Injured  by  side  swipes  from  switching 
tails."  It  Is  interesting  to  note  in  this  connection  that  kicks 
from  cattle  rarely  injure  the  eye  on  account  of  the  limited  verti- 
cal displacement  of  their  hoofs. 

107 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

Unfortunately,  in  but  few  of  the  reports  of  State  Labor  De- 
partments, Insurance  Commissions,  et  al.,  are  there  found  any 
data  of  importance  relative  to  the  occurrence  of  accidents  in 
agricultural  industries. 

In  California,  however,  of  the  1264  permanent  injuries  re- 
ported in  1913,  123  were  agricultural.  Of  65,741  temporary  in- 
juries reported  in  1915,  3249  were  agricultural.  As  an  indica- 
tion of  the  subindustry  or  particular  occupation  in  which  the 
injury  occurred,  the  following  statistics  from  the  California 
report  are  of  interest : 

3249   TEMPORARY    INJURIES    OCCURRING    IN    AGRICULTURE 
GROUP  OF  SUBINDUSTRY.     TIME:   12  MONTHS— JANU- 
ARY I  TO  DECEMBER  31,  1915 

AGRICULTURE 
General  farming  (no  blasting),  horticulture,  viticulture,  hop 

culture,  and  conservative  forestry 2189 

Dairy  farming 197 

Power  farming  (machinery,  power  driven,  no  blasting) 21 

Stock  farming  (poultry  ranches) 420 

Garden  or  truck  farming,  floriculture,  nurseries,  and  landscape 

gardening 45 

Operating  farm  machinery — not  by  farmer — all  sorts  of  thresh- 
ing, hay  baling,  etc.,  where  work  is  sublet 79 

Picking,  packing,  drying,  and  curing  of  fruits 252 

Farm  work  where  explosives  are  used 7 

Fumigating  and  spraying  fruits > 39 

Total 3249 

Note. — Irrigation  plants  operated  by  regular  farm  laborers 
fall  under  the  head  of  "  General  Farming."  All  reclamation  and 
irrigation  projects  operated  by  a  class  of  labor  which  never  en- 
gages in  farm  work,  but  follows  the  construction  camp  from  one 
district  to  another,  fall  under  the  classification  of  "Construc- 
tion." 

3249    TEMPORARY    INJURIES    OCCURRING    IN    AGRICULTURE 
TIME:   12  MONTHS— JANUARY  i  TO  DECEMBER  31,  1915 

Chief  Causes 

Machinery 296 

Dangerous  substances 423 

Falling,  rolling,  or  flying  objects 242 

Personal  falls 37^ 

General  or  all  other  causes 1696 

Unknown 214 

Total 3249 

108 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

3249    TEMPORARY    INJURIES    OCCURRING    IN    AGRICULTURE 
TIME:   12  MONTHS— JANUARY  i  TO  DECEMBER  31,  1915 

Time  Lost  in  Days  by  Chief  Causes 

Machinery 5,395 

Dangerous  substances 4,578 

Falling,  rolling,  and  flying  objects 2,632 

Personal  falls 8,404 

General  or  all  other  causes 29,936 

Unknown 720 

Total 51,665 


3249    TEMPORARY    INJURIES    OCCURRING    IN    AGRICULTURE 
TIME:   12  MONTHS— JANUARY  i  TO  DECEMBER  31,  1915 

Amounts  Paid  in  Compensation  and  Medical  Benefits  by  Chief  Causes 


Cause 

Compensation 

Medical  Benefits 

Total 

Machinery 

$5,076.00 
2,172.00 

$7,819.58 
6. 1:78.08 

$12,895.58 

8,750.98 

5,373.38 

15,300.00 

57,523.23 

1,308.75 

Dangerous  substances 

Falling,  rolling,  and  flying  objects, . 
Personal  falls 

1,982.00     j          3,391.38 
6,^46.00             8. 75^. on 

General  or  all  other  causes 

Unknown 

20,745.00 
703.00 

36,778.23 
605.75 

Totals 

$37,224.00 

$63,927.92 

$101,151.92 

In  Illinois  but  114  of  the  16,869  accidents  reported  for  the 
year  ended  June  30,  19 16,  were  agricultural,  less  than  i  per  cent., 
and  of  these,  none  was  fatal.  The  compensation  awards  and 
medical  expenses  for  this  group  amounted  to  $9531.  The  disabil- 
ity period  terminations  were  as  follows : 


Within:    i 
35 


2 
25 


WEEKS 
4  5  6-10 


II 


17 


11-15 


16-20 


In  Michigan  the  Report  of  the  Industrial  Accident  Board  for 
the  year  19 16  states  that  there  were  343  agriculturalists  under 
the  Act — these  employing  3004  workers.  For  the  period  covered 
there  was  one  fatal  accident,  and  one  resulting  in  permanent 
partial  disability.  There  were  in  addition  52  causing  temporary 
total  disability.     The  one  case  of  permanent  partial  disability 

109 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

was  an  accident  resulting  in  loss  of  an  arm  by  an  employe  oper- 
ating agricultural  machinery. 

The  classification  of  the  agricultural  accidents  causing  tem- 
porary total  disability  in  Michigan  is  as  follows: 


General  farming ........ 

Dairy  farming 

Stock  farming 

Garden  and  truck  farming 

Operating  agricultural 

machinery 


Frac- 
tures 

Dis- 
location 

or 
Sprains 

Lacera- 
tions 

Cuts 

Con- 
tusions 

All 
Others 

7 

■^ 

7 

3 

2 

3 

4 

2 
'  2 

2 

I 
2 

3 

2 

6 

I 

19 

8 

4 

6 

6 

9 

Total 

19 
2 

17 
14 

52 


In  Minnesota  for  the  year  1915-1916  there  were  14  fatal 
accidents  recorded  in  agricultural  pursuits.  Over  the  period 
1910  to  1916  inclusive,  85  fatal  accidents  occurred  in  this  indus- 
try. A  special  note  is  made  in  the  Minnesota  report  of  the  in- 
spections given  agricultural  machinery.  In  the  last  two  years 
29  orders  were  issued  to  guard  danger-points  on  corn-shredding 
or  corn-husking  machinery.  Inspections  are  made  whenever 
the  Department  learns  of  any  new  models  of  such  machinery 
being  placed  on  sale  by  implement  dealers  in  Minnesota.  Orders 
are  issued  prohibiting  its  sale  until  properly  guarded.  Largely 
as  the  result  of  this  safety  effort  manufacturers  are  now  fre- 
quently inviting  inspection  of  a  working  model  before  they  com- 
mence its  manufacture. 

Though  there  are  but  a  very  few  states  in  which  compilation 
of  any  statistics  on  this  subject  has  been  made,  even  such  as  are 
available  indicate  the  extent  of  the  hazards  of  farm  labor. 


GOGGLES 

Of  the  various  protective  devices  which  are  available  for  the 
reduction  of  eye  accidents  in  the  industries,  there  is  none  which 
has  greater  possibilities  for  saving  sight  than  the  goggle.     In 


no 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

design,  style,  and  color  one  has  infinite  variety  of  choice.  Due  to 
the  activity  of  the  commercial  houses  making  a  specialty  of 
goggles  and  other  protective  appliances  for  the  eyes,  industrial 
managers  and  plant  officials  in  every  city  and  hamlet  are  more 
or  less  familiar  with  the  purposes  for  which  the  various  styles 
have  been  created,  and  the  moderate  prices  at  which  they  may 
be  secured  in  either  small  or  large  quantities. 


Fig-  38. — Ninety-four  pairs  of  broken  goggles  collected  in  three  months.     Each 
pair  saved  a  man's  sight.     American  Steel  Foundries. 

The  marked  reduction  in  eye  accidents  which  has  been  ac- 
complished in  an  infinite  number  of  great  industrial  organizations 
during  the  past  decade  is  the  result  in  large  part  of  .the  provision 
and  use  of  protective  goggles. 

During  the  year  19 13,  2499  employes  of  the  New  York  Cen- 
tral lines  sustained  eye  injuries,  many  of  which  were  serious. 
According  to  the  statement  of  Mr.  Marcus  A.  Dow,  General 
Safety  Agent  of  that  System,  every  one  of  these  cases  might  have 
been  prevented  if  goggles  had  been  worn.     This  railroad  was  the 

III 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

first  in  the  United  States  to  adopt  goggles  in  the  campaign  to 
reduce  eye  injuries,  and  the  results  secured  have  been  remarkable. 
Chippers,  riveters,  boilermakers,  grinders,  or  any  employes 
doing  work  hazardous  to  the  eye  are  furnished  free  of  charge 
properly  fitted  goggles.  These  employes  are  constantly  turning 
in  goggles  with  cracked  lenses,  some  shattered,  others  covered 
with  splashes  ofmolten  metal,  and  some  so  scratched  and  checked 
from  particles  of  emery  that  they  look  like  ground  glass.  Each 
pair  thus  damaged  attests  the  sight-saving  potentialities  of  this 
kind  of  eye  protection. 

Any  safety  director  or  manager  of  a  foundry  or  shop  in  which 
safety  regulations  are  enforced  can  show  numerous  "exhibits" 
of  goggles  which  have  saved  eyes.  Within  a  period  of  but  three 
months  94  pairs  of  goggles,  each  of  wl^iich  presumably  saved  a 
man's  sight,  were  turned  in  at  the  works  of  the  American  Steel 
Foundries  Company.  Every  pair  had  been  broken  by  flying 
steel  chips.  In  another  large  steel  foundry  where  goggles  have 
been  used  since  19 11,  48  broken  pairs  were  collected  in  one 
month's  time  from  one  plant — 297  pairs  among  the  several  sub- 
sidiary foundries  within  a  period  of  six  months.  During  this 
entire  period  not  one  serious  eye  accident  occurred. 

The  striking  reduction  in  eye  accidents  as  shown  by  the  fol- 
lowing record  of  injuries  to  the  eyes  of  employes  of  the  American 
Locomotive  Company  for  a  period  of  five  years,  during  the  latter 
two  of  which  the  use  of  safety  goggles  was  established,  provides  a 
typical  example  of  the  excellent  results  which  may  be  expected 
from  the  use  of  this  kind  of  eye  protection.     (See  table,  p.  113.) 

The  different  types  of  goggles  in  use  may  be  classed  under 
four  heads: 

1.  Goggles  for  protection  against  flying  materials. 

2.  Goggles  for  protection  against  intense  light  and  heat. 

3.  Goggles  for  protection  against  gases,  fumes,  and  liquids. 

4.  Dust  goggles. 

The  first  essential  of  any  protective  device  is  that  it  must 
offer  complete  protection  against  the  hazard  for  which  it  was 
designed.  In  the  matter  of  goggles,  comfort  is  very  important, 
and  this  necessitates  light  weight  and  good  ventilation  of  the 
space  around  the  eyes.     The  parts  in  contact  with  the  skin 

112 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

should  be  smooth  and  so  well  fitted  that  no  chafing  or  discomfort 
will  result.  Bad-fitting  goggles  have  created  much  prejudice 
against  their  use.  Goggles  can  be  bought  in  many  sizes,  and 
are  made  to  conform  to  the  wide  nose  of  the  negro,  just  as  well  as 
to  the  nose  with  a  very  narrow  bridge. 


AMERICAN  LOCOMOTIVE  COMPANY— NEW  YORK 

Injuries  to  Eyes — Years  igio  to  IQ15 


Number 

Average 

Number 

Injuries 
Per  1000 

Number 

Accidents 

AT    mhpr 

Number 

Full-Time 

Full-Time 

Year 

Requiring 

Eyes  Lost 

Full-Time 

Men  Per 

Full-Time 

Men  Per 

Medical 

Men  Per 

Year  Per 

Men  Per 

Year  Per 

Attention 

Year 

Eyes  Lost 

Year 

Injury 

I9IO 

518 

13 

11,547 

1,119 

35.6 

28.0 

I9II 

293 

7 

8.358 

1,194 

35.0 

28.5 

1912 

491 

13 

11,084 

853 

44-3 

22.5 

I913 

490 

9 

12,042 

1.338 

40.7 

24.7 

(Average) 

1910-1913 

448 

10.5 

11,506 

1,108 

38.9 

25.7 

Use  of  Safety  Goggles  Established 


1914 
1915* 


86 
52 


5,004 
3,311 


5,004 
1,656 


17.2 
15-7 


58.2 
63.6 


*  Actual  for  first  six  months  multiplied  by  2. 

Goggle  manufacturers  have  given  very  careful  attention  to 
the  tensile  strength  of  both  lens  and  frame.  One  test  applied  to 
the  glass  consists  in  dropping  a  hardened  steel  ball  five-eighths  of 
an  inch  in  diameter  21  inches  from  an  electric  magnet  directly 
upon  the  surface  of  the  glass,  without  permitting  the  latter  to 
rest  on  any  support  or  backing  other  than  its  own  frame.  The 
goggles  subjected  to  this  test  should  withstand  25  blows  of  this 
kind  without  breaking. 

Many  workmen  attempt  to  repudiate  the  recommendation 
that  goggles  should  be  worn  with  the  objection  that  they  are  in 
themselves  a  source  of  danger,  due  to  damage  to  the  eye  from 
poSvsible  cuts  received  from  a  broken  lens.  An  eminent  oculist 
who  has  had  large  experience  in  attending  workmen  who  have 
sustained  industrial  accidents  states,  from  his  own  personal  ex- 
8  113 


EYE    HAZARDS    IN    INDUSTRIAL    OCCUPATIONS 

perience  in  over  2000  serious  accidental  injuries  to  the  eyes,  that 
he  has  seen  only  three  of  any  kind  caused  by  broken  goggles, 
and  "  none  oi  these  was  serious."  Again,  the  safety  director  of  a 
steel  plant  employing  nearly  20,000  workers  in  a  southern  city 
recently  stated  to  the  author  that  from  more  than  4000  accidents 
resulting  in  the  breaking  of  lenses  in  goggles  there  had  been  not  a 
single  injury  due  to  penetration  of  glass  particles. 

The  lenses  should  be  ground  both  sides  to  eliminate  surface 
waves  and  defects,  and  glass  that  is  at  all  off  color  should  not  be 
used.  Frequently  employers  provide  the  goggles  with  lenses 
ground  to  correct  some  refractive  error  which  exists  in  the  eyes 
of  the  employe.  Some  corporations  have  the  eyes  of  their  work- 
men periodically  examined,  and  treatment  afforded  as  may  be 
required.  Workmen  accustomed  to  wearing  corrective  lenses 
at  their  work  may  thus  have  them  supplied  in  the  protective 
goggle  according  to  prescription  requirements,  and  by  this  means 
do  away  with  the  trouble  of  wearing  glasses  under  the  goggles. 
Several  Buffalo  firms  furnished  these  prescription  lenses  for  their 
workmen  free  of  charge,  and  the  workmen  wore  the  goggles  con- 
tinuously. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  recommendations,  attention  is 
directed  to  the  following  suggestions  quoted  from  a  National 
Safety  Council  Bulletin: 

"The  secret  of  getting  men  to  wear  goggles  is  to  use  a  little 
patience.  Induce  the  workmen  to  give  the  goggles  a  few  days' 
trial.  Inquire  each  day  how  they  are  getting  along.  Some- 
times it  is  necessary  to  pick  out  one  man  who  is  sympathetic  with 
progressive  ideas  and  convert  him.  He  will  help  convert  the 
others. 

"Provide  a  case  with  every  pair  of  goggles.  Money  will  be 
saved  by  so  doing,  and  the  life  of  the  goggles  will  be  prolonged. 

"See  that  each  man  is  provided  with  a  cloth  to  clean  his 
goggles.  Renew  the  cloths  frequently;  this  will  encourage  the 
men  to  keep  their  goggles  clean. 

"It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  goggles  be  inspected 
daily  for  the  following  defects:  Cracked  lenses,  bent  or  broken 
screens,  loose  temple  pieces,  etc. 

"  If  a  workman  complains  about  his  goggles,  listen  to  him. 
The  chances  are  that  his  trouble  can  be  adjusted  very  easily. 

**  If  education  and  persuasion  fail  to  convince  men  that  they 

114 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

must  protect  their  sight,  there  is  only  one  course  left,  and  that 
is  discipline. 

"When  showing  visitors  through  plant,  ask  them  to  comply 
with  the  shop  rules  and  wear  goggles  in  departments  where  such 
are  in  use." 

It  is  of  prime  importance  to  emphasize  the  danger  of  infection 
and  transmission  of  disease  through  any  interchange  of  goggles 


Fig-  39- — Sterilizer  which  can  be  used  for  disinfecting  goggles  with  formalde- 
hyde gas. 

on  the  part  of  employes.  And  yet  it  must  be  admitted  that 
under  pressure  of  rush  work,  when  scores  of  goggles  are  being 
turned  in  daily  to  have  new  lenses  inserted,  a  workman  will  not 
always  get  back  the  same  goggle  frame  he  originally  had. 

If  it  is  found  impossible  to  label  frames  with  employe's  name 
or  number,  or  to  look  after  these  details  with  sufficient  care  to 
insure  the  proper  return  of  goggles,  a  sterilization  outfit  should  be 
secured.  Various  types  of  these  are  on  the  market,  used  chiefly 
for  sterilization  of  surgeons'  instruments,  but  easily  adaptable 
to  the  sterilization  of  goggles.  The  one  illustrated  in  Fig.  39 
may  be  purchased  at  small  cost,  and  will  thoroughly  sterilize 
goggles,  in  quantity  lots.  But  a  short  time  is  needed  to  ac- 
9  115 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

complish  the  process.  Lacking  such  special  apparatus,  the  use 
of  boihng  water  or  Hve  steam  will  prove  effective  as  a  means  of 
sterilization. 

The  question  as  to  whether  goggles  should  be  held  in  place 
by  metal  temple  pieces  or  by  an  elastic  band  fitting  around  the 
head  is  one  which  should  be  determined  in  large  part  by  the  par- 
ticular occupation  and  temperament  of  the  employe. 

While  the  elastic  band  may  deteriorate  from  perspiration 
or  stretching,  it  is  easily  and  cheaply  replaced,  and  may  prove 
advantageous  in  unconsciously  encouraging  more  constant  use 
of  the  goggles.  Workers  using  these  head-bands  have  been 
noted  as  being  accustomed  to  push  the  goggles  up  on  their  fore- 
heads when  not  in  use.  While  this  procedure  may  to  some 
appear  disadvantageous,  it  has  been  evident  to  others  that  it 
made  for  more  consistent  use  of  goggles  among  those  who  were 
engaged  in  work  which  did  not  require  constant  eye  protection. 


GARMENT  WORKERS 

It  has  long  been  evident  that  garment  workers  suffer  to  a  very 
great  extent  from  defective  vision.  It  has  been  recognized  that 
the  industry  itself  was  one  which  called  for  close  application  to 
work  in  itself  unusually  trying  on  the  eyes.  The  statements 
made  in  the  paragraphs  in  this  section  are  based  not  only  upon 
the  author's  observations,  but  also  upon  the  findings  in  a  study 
of  the  health  of  garment  workers,  and  the  hygienic  conditions 
of  illumination  in  workshops  of  women's  garment  industry  in 
New  York  city,  conducted  by  the  United  States  Public  Health 
Service  in  19 14,  and  made  under  the  personal  direction  of  Sur- 
geon J.  W.  Schereschewsky.  The  results  of  that  investigation 
appear  in  Public  Health  Bulletin  No.  71,  issued  May,  1915,  and 
may  be  secured  through  the  United  States  Public  Health  Ser- 
vice, Washington,  D.  C. 

The  study  was  made  at  the  req'uest  of  the  Joint  Board  of 
Sanitary  Control  of  the  Cloak,  Suit  and  Skirt,  and  Dress  and 
Waist  Industries  of  New  York  city,  in  which  were  employed  at 
the  time  about  86,000  male  and  female  workers.  Of  these,  about 
2000  male  and  1000  female  workers  were  examined. 

116 


% 

EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

The  visual  acuity  was  tested  in  the  case  of  1924  males  and 
982  females,  a  total  of  2906  persons.  Of  this  number  but  743 
(502  males  and  241  females)  had  normal  vision  in  both  eyes,  or  a 
little  over  25  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  tested.  In  498  cases 
(341  males,  157  females),  or  a  little  over  17  per  cent.,  the  vision 
was  normal  in  one  eye,  but  defective  in  the  other,  while  in  1665 
instances  (1081  male,  584  female),  or  about  57  per  cent.,  the 
vision  of  both  eyes  was  defective. 

The  relation  between  the  occupation  of  the  worker  and  defects 
of  vision  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  incidence  of  subnormal 
vision  in  both  eyes  among  males  appeared  in  64.6  per  cent,  of 
the  finishers,  64  per  cent,  of  the  tailors,  58.7  per  cent,  of  the 
pressers,  52.7  per  cent,  of  the  operators,  48  per  cent,  of  the  mis- 
cellaneous workers,  and  44.6  per  cent,  of  the  cutters.  Among 
females  the  percentage  incidence  of  subnormal  vision  in  both  eyes 
was  as  follows:  Finishers,  60  per  cent.;  operators,  57.7  per  cent.; 
miscellaneous  workers,  57.1  per  cent. 

With  the  exception  of  the  work  of  the  pressers,  the  garment 
industry  makes  exacting  demands  upon  the  eyes  of  the  workers. 
Eye-strain  may  easily  develop,  and  it  is  important  that  any 
defect  of  vision  be  recognized  at  an  early  stage  and  the  proper 
treatment  and  glasses  provided.  Those  who  made  the  greatest 
use  of  their  eyes  were  found  to  have  the  highest  percentage  of 
defective  vision,  and  the  percentage  of  those  having  normal 
vision  was  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  age,  the  groups  with  the 
highest  average  age  having  the  lowest  percentage  of  normal 
vision. 

So  far  as  the  workers'  responsibility  is  concerned,  it  would 
seem  that  faulty  posture  and  neglect  of  personal  hygiene  were 
the  factors  chiefly  responsible  for  the  ocular  conditions  found. 

Dr.  Schereschewsky  found  that,  "  in  spite  of  the  large  number 
of  workers  with  defective  vision,  relatively  few  had  made  any 
attempt  to  improve  their  vision  by  the  use  of  glasses."  In  fact, 
only  II. 7  per  cent,  of  the  2163  male  and  female  persons  with 
defective  vision  wore  glasses,  and  of  these  only  about  20  per  cent, 
wore  glasses  which  would  wholly  correct  the  visual  defect.  Par- 
tial correction  of  the  visual  defect  was  present  in  163  cases,  or 
about  64  per  cent,  of  those  wearing  glasses,  while  in  36  cases,  or 

117 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

about  14.4  per  cent.,  the  glasses  worn  either  did  not  improve  the 
vision  or  made  it  worse.  Compared  with  the  total  number  hav- 
ing defective  vision  these  percentages  become  smaller  yet,  those 
with  defective  vision  having  their  defect  fully  corrected  by 
glasses  being  but  2.35  per  cent.,  those  w^ith  the  defect  partly  cor- 
rected being  7.5  per  cent.,  and  those  wearing  glasses  without 
improvement  being  1.67  per  cent." 

In  explanation  of  the  great  prevalence  of  defective  vision  in 
these  workers  there  should  be  considered  the  fact  that  many 
are  foreigners  not  accustomed  to  our  ways,  afraid  to  go  to  the 
hospital  or  to  an  eye  clinic,  and  too  often  yielding  to  the  tempta- 
tion of  purchasing  glasses  from  a  push-cart,  thus  attempting  to 
diagnose  their  own  needs,  and  merely  temporizing  with  the  de- 
fect. Again,  many  glasses  had  undoubtedly  been  prescribed  by 
opticians  or  practitioners  poorly  qualified  for  such  work.  In 
certain  instances]  the  defect  was  such  that  partial  correction 
was  the  best  that  could  be  secured. 

The  correction  of  certain  faults  for  which  the  workers  them- 
selves are  responsible  will  rapidly  better  conditions.  To  effect 
this,  the  following  recommendations  were  made: 

"  Owing  to  the  great  number  of  faulty  postures  among  work- 
ers, the  fatigue  from  sitting  on  seats  improperly  supporting  the 
body  and  similar  conditions,  an  effort  should  be  made  to  promote 
the  use  in  the  garment  trades  of  adjustable  seats  with  backs." 

"  In  view  of  the  efficient  organization  of  garment  workers  and 
the  relative  ease  with  which  information  can  be.  disseminated 
among  them,  the  suggestion  is  made  that  the  trades  establish  a 
special  dispensary  for  garment  workers  .  .  .  where  special 
attention  will  be  paid  to  the  correction  of  ocular  defects,  dental 
prophylaxis,  and  disease  of  the  respiratory  and  digestive  tracts." 

Regarding  the  causes  of  defective  vision  over  which  the  work- 
ers have  no  control,  a  study  was  made  of  the  hygienic  conditions 
of  the  34  shops  and  45  workrooms  typical  of  the  women's  gar- 
ment industry  in  New  York  city.  The  study  was  made  during 
the  summer  months,  when,  because  of  the  better  daylight  con- 
ditions, the  optimum  light  condition  might  be  expected. 

All  the  shops  used  daylight,  but  at  23  per  cent,  of  them  it 
was  found  that  auxiliary  artificial  illumination  at  some  working- 

118 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 


Fig.  40. — Operatives  sewing  in  a  sweat-shop,  the  only  artificial  illumination 
being  that  of  one  open-flame  gas-jet. 


Fig.  41. — Lighting  of  sewing  machines.     Consolidated  Gas  Company  of  New 

York. 

119 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

place  had  to  be  depended  upon  habitually.  Because  of  reduc- 
tion of  the  efficiency  of  windows  due  to  small  sky  angles  (hence 
high  angle  of  incidence  of  light) ;  failure  to  use  prismatic  or  fac- 
tory-ribbed glass  with  windows  of  small  sky  angle;  dirty  windows 
and  reduction  of  daylight  due  to  obstruction  of  window-spaces  by 
piles  of  clothing,  et  cetera,  the  illumination  at  the  working-places 
was  found  for  the  general  average  to  be  inadequate  in  52.6  per 
cent,  of  the  shops  inspected.  These  computations  were  based 
upon  the  requirement  that  all  working  planes  should  have  a 
minimum  average  illumination  of  5  foot  candles,  which  is  some- 
what higher  than  that  ordinarily  required  for  other  types  of  work, 
and  is  so  set  because  of  the  exacting  natures  of  the  work  involved. 
A  study  of  the  albedo  or  reflection  co-efficient  of  the  various 
cloths  worked  upon  indicates  clearly  the  need  for  more  than 
ordinary  amount  of  illumination.  Glare  effects  were  found,  as 
were  also  lack  of  uniformity  in  distribution  of  illumination,  in- 
adequate illumination,  and  troublesome  shadows. 

ALBEDO  OF  MATERIALS  COMMONLY  WORKED  UPON  IN  WORK- 
SHOPS OF  THE  WOMEN'S  GARMENT  TRADES, 
NEW  YORK  CITY 


Material 


Albedo 


Per  Cent. 


Material 


Black  velvet 0.37      1  Black  silk  and   mercerized 

Navy     blue     woolen     cloth 

(dark) 

Black  woolen  cloth 

Navy     blue     woolen     cloth 

(light) 

Green,       Russian       (dark), 

woolen  or  cotton 

Brown  woolen  cloth  (dark) . 
Black  cotton  cloth 


1-7 
1.9 

2.2 

2.3 
2.3 
2.9 


cotton 

Green     (light)     woolen    or 

cotton 

Brown  woolen  cloth  (light) 
Tango     cloth,     woolen     or 

cotton 

Light  brown  paper  patterns 
White  cloth* 


Albedo 

Per  Cent. 

4.5 

54 
10.9 

35.1 
659 


*  The  albedo  of  white  cloth  depends  largely  upon  its  thickness,  together 
with  the  color  of  the  surface  upon  which  it  is  placed.  The  albedo  given  is  for 
a  double  thickness  of  cloth  lying  on  a  golden-oak  colored  surface. 


The  recommendations  which  were  made  for  providing  ade- 
quate illumination  so  far  as  daylight  is  concerned  specified  that 
the  building  in  which  a  garment  shop  is  located  should  be  on  a 
street  having  general  east  and  west  direction,  that  preference 
should  be  given  to  upper  floors  because  the  sky  angle  increases 

120 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

as  the  height  from  the  street;  that  the  imminence  and  color  of 
neighboring  buildings  should  be  carefully  considered,  especially 
if  a  workroom  is  set  on  a  low  floor;  that  with  small  sky  angles, 
prism  or  factory-ribbed  glass  should  be  used  for  windows;  that 
the  ceiling  height  should  be  the  greatest  available;  that  walls 
and  ceilings  should  be  finished  with  a  white  mat  surface  and  trim 
and  doors  be  light  in  color. 

The  arrangement  of  working  planes  should  be  perpendicular 
to  the  windows.  This,  while  not  ideal,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
workers  are  placed  at  both  sides  of  the  tables,  is  nevertheless 
considered  the  best  practical  working  out  of  that  problem.  The 
number  of  machines  in  a  bank  should  be  limited  to  six  or  eight. 
Placement  perpendicular  to  the  windows  will  eliminate  the  possi- 
bility of  glare  from  daylight  sources,  and  minimize  the  shadows 
on  the  working  surface. 

So  far  as  artificial  lighting  is  concerned,  it  is  recommended 
that  the  entire  shop  have  a  system  of  general  artificial  lighting 
sufficient  to  insure  an  illumination  of  not  less  than  one  foot  candle 
over  the  entire  floor  area.  Work  planes  should  have  from  5  to  7 
foot  candles  illumination;  there  should  be  local  lighting  for 
machines  and  finishing  tables,  and  general  illumination  for  cut- 
ting, basting,  and  pressing  tables.  It  is  as  important  to  avoid 
glare  from  artificial,  as  well  as  from  natural,  light  sources.  Bare 
lamps  should  never  be  used,  and  care  should  be  exercised  to 
prevent  a  local  light  source  being  so  manipulated  by  a  worker 
as  to  produce  satisfactory  illumination  for  himself  and  yet  cause 
glare  for  an  adjacent  worker.  Prismatic  reflectors  should  be  of 
the  deep-bowl  type,  so  that  the  light  units  will  be  concealed. 
Opaque  deep-bowl  or  cone  reflectors  should  always  be  used  for 
local  illumination  when  the  height  of  suspension  is  such  that  the 
light  unit  will  be  within  the  ordinary  field  of  vision. 


INDUSTRIAL  LIGHTING 

The  advantage  of  correct  lighting  in  all  industries  is  now 
generally  appreciated  by  all  who  have  considered  the  problem. 
The  influence  of  correct  shop  lighting  as  an  aid  to  increased  pro- 
duction and  improved  quality  of  work  has  been  the  subject  of 

121 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 


122 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

much  study  and  attention,  and  the  results  have  proved  to  the 
satisfaction  of  many,  that  with  the  installation  of  proper  lighting 
equipment  there  follows  a  marked  increase  in  the  amount  of 
work  done,  the  quality  of  work  is  improved,  the  number  of 
"seconds"  is  reduced,  accidents  are  less  frequent,  and  in  many 
instances  the  cost  of  lighting  itself  is  lowered. 

Undoubtedly  more  agreeable  and  comfortable  working  condi- 
tions are  brought  about  when  proper  lighting  is  provided  in  work- 
places, and  protection  thus  given  to  the  eyesight  of  the  workers. 

These  factors  are  so  important  from  the  humanitarian  stand- 
point and  from  their  close  connection  with  production,  labor 
turn-over,  and  other  shop  problems  that  it  is  hard  to  understand 
why  all  industrialists  do  not  provide  satisfactory  illuminating 
conditions  in  all  departments  from  office  to  foundry. 

Good  illumination  is  an  excellent  business  proposition.  It  I 
has  been  shown  that  production  may  be  increased  from  8  to  15 
per  cent,  (depending  on  the  particular  industry)  by  the  installa- 
tion of  proper  lighting  equipment  in  plants  which  have  hitherto 
lacked  this  advantage.  The  cost  of  correct  lighting  is  not  to  be 
compared  with  the  results  obtained,  since  the  item  is  usually  less 
than  yi  of  I  per  cent,  of  the  workmen's  wages  when  all  charges 
are  included. 

"  One  of  the  leading  electrical  engineers  of  the  United  States 
has  made  a  careful  study  of  factories  in  which  efficient  lighting 
systems  have  been  installed.  He  states  that,  as  a  result  of  im- 
proved lifting  systems  in  steel  plants,  where  coarse  work  is  done, 
the  total  output  was  mcreased  2  per  cent.;  in  plants  such  as 
textile  mills  and  shoe  factories,  where  the  work  is  finer,  the  total  1 
output  was  increased  10  per  cent. 

"We  have  been  informed  that  recent  investigation  reveals 
the  fact  that  the  cost  of  providing  adequate  artificial  illumination  '; 
in  .the  average  plant  does  not  exceed  ^  of  i  per  cent,  of  the  wages,  j 
It  costs  one  cent  a  day  to  provide  a  man  earning  $2  a  day  with  1 
sufficient  light  so  that  he  can  work  with  accuracy  and  safety." — 
News  Letter  No.  10,  National  Safety  Council.^  j 

*  This  quotation  originally  appeared  in  a  paper  entitled  "  Industrial  Light- 
ing," prepared  by  Mr.  C.  L.  Eshleman,  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers,  January,  1913,  pages  41  to  54. 

123 


EYE   HAZARDS    IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

For  specific  data  relating  to  results  of  the  nature  mentioned, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  following  articles : 

"How  to  Increase  Factory  Efficiency,"  by  O.  M.  Becker, 
Engineering  Magazine,  April,  1916. 

"Gas  Lighting  in  Industrial  Plants,"  by  Thomas  Scofield, 
Engineering  Magazine,  October,  19 16. 

"Light  as  a  Factor  of  Efficiency,"  by  W.  A.  D.  Evans,  Tex- 
tile World  Record,  issues  of  November  and  December, 
1914. 

"Artificial  Lighting  and  Shop  Production,"  by  D.  R.  Shearer, 
Electrical  Review  and  Western  Electrician,  July  i,  1916. 

There  are  those  who  feel  that  too  much  emphasis  has  been 
put  on  illumination  as  a  factor  in  accident  reduction.  For  in- 
stance, Beyer  in  "Industrial  Accident  Prevention"  makes  the 
following  statement: 

"It  has  been  assumed  that  inadequate  lighting  facilities 
brought  about  many  of  the  accidents  which  occur  in  the  indus- 
tries during  the  winter  months,  but  there  is  really  no  way  of 
proving  such  a  statement.  Many  comparisons  have  been  made 
of  the  number  of  accidents  which  have  occurred  in  the  summer 
and  winter  months;  because  certain  tables  of  statistics  show  fewer 
accidents  in  summer  than  in  winter  it  has  been  assumed  that  the 
difference  is  due  to  the  greater  prevalence  of  daylight  in  summer. 
This  conclusion  is  scarcely  permissible,  since  the  benumbing  effect 
of  cold  weather  furnishes  quite  as  reasonable  an  explanation  for 
the  increased  accidents  in  winter  as  does  inadequate  light." 

As  to  the  hours  of  the  day  between  which  the  largest  number 
of  accidents  occur,  it  has  long  been  recognized  that  the  peaks  are 
between  10  and  11  in  the  morning,  and  between  4  and  5  in  the 
afternoon.  It  would  therefore  seem  that  fatigue  might  be  a 
factor  chiefly  responsible  for  accident  occurrence,  and  of  the 
causes  of  fatigue,  aside  from  the  nature  of  the  work,  the  physical 
condition  of  the  employe  and  the  working  conditions  would 
seem  to  be  the  most  important.  Under  "working  conditions" 
illumination  is  an  important  factor  in  the  establishment  of  good 
or  bad  working  conditions. 

The  chief  barrier  in  the  way  of  improvement  of  illuminating 
conditions  is  generally  found  to  be  the  first  cost  of  installation. 

124 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN    INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

The  facts,  however,  do  not  justify  such  an  attitude.  The 
opinions  of  many  plant  officials  throughout  the  country  have 
been  sought  in  regard  to  the  effect  of  illumination  on  production, 
health,  efficiency  of  workers,  and  accident  prevention.  The 
majority  of  replies  stated  that  with  the  improvement  of  lighting 
conditions  there  have  been  marked  changes  for  the  better  in 
output,  attitude  of  workers,  and  accident  reduction.* 

If  in  the  70  plants  visited  in  Buffalo  it  were  possible  to  place 
the  buildings  in  groups  according  to  the  nature  of  the  work  per- 
formed within  them,  arranging  the  individual  buildings  of  each 
group  in  line,  beginning  with  the  oldest,  the  result  would  show  a 
most  remarkable  progress  in  the  development  of  better  daylight 
conditions.     Even  in  a  single  plant  this  progress  can  be  observed. 

Perhaps  the  most  striking  instance  was  the  plant  of  a  firm 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  metal  beds.  The  oldest  building 
was  of  brick,  with  low  ceilings  and  narrow  windows  spaced  at 
irregular  intervals.  The  rooms  were  wide  and  received  very 
little  daylight.  New  buildings  which  had  been  added  from  time 
to  time  showed  the  tendency  to  provide  more  daylight.  The  ceil- 
ings were  higher  and  the  rooms  were  narrower.  The  windows 
were  also  higher  and  closer  together.  The  most  recent  addition 
consisted  of  a  two-story  reinforced  concrete  daylight  building,  the 
design  of  which  was  such  as  to  permit  its  extension  to  five  stories 
at  some  future  time.  Many  other  examples  could  be  cited  to 
show  this  increasing  tendency  to  provide  an  abundance  of  day- 
light when  additions  to  the  plants  are  made. 

There  are  several  Buffalo  firms  whose  plants  are  worthy  of 
mention  as  having  extremely  good  daylight  features.  Among 
these  are  the  Hewitt  Rubber  Company,  the  Otis  Elevator  Com- 
pany, Ford  Motor  Company,  Barmon  Brothers,  Inc.,  and  the 
Pierce-Arrow  Motor  Car  Company.  These  plants  present  many 
different  conditions  and  all  are  worthy  of  study  for  daylight 
features  alone. 

*The  reader  is  referred  for  further  particulars  to  the  following  article: 
"The  Consideration  of  Color,  Design  and  Acoustics  in  Factories,"  by  Florence 
Dempsey,  in  "Safety,"  October,  1914.  The  article  is  published  as  a  report  on 
progress  by  the  Committee  on  Factory  Planning,  of  the  American  Museum  of 
Safety.  Frank  E.  Wallis,  F.A.I.A.,  was  Chairman  of  the  Committee.  The 
article  referred  to  is  a  summary  of  the  replies  received  to  a  list  of  questions 
sent  to  two  hundred  factories  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 

125 


EYE   HAZARDS    IN    INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 


26 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

The  Pierce-Arrow  Plant  has  given  a  great  deal  of  attention 
to  the  question  of  lighting.  Their  plant  may  be  studied  to  great 
advantage  by  any  one  interested  in  this  feature  of  plant  equip- 
ment. 

The  buildings  are  of  reinforced  concrete  and  steel  construc- 
tion, rising  to  four  stories.  Monitor,  saw-tooth,  and  skylight 
construction  are  used  in  the  one-story  buildings.  The  saw-tooth 
windows  face  the  north  and  east.  This  type  of  daylight  con- 
struction is  particularly  efficient  in  providing  light  for  the  shop 
where  the  machine-belting,  the  shafting,  and  machines  them- 
selves create  difficult  lighting  problems.  Where  freight  cars  are 
likely  to  cut  off  light  from  the  buildings,  skylights  have  been 
provided. 

In  the  four-story  buildings  the  width  is  comparatively  narrow 
and  the  windows  extend  to  the  ceiling.  The  ceilings  in  all  the 
buildings  are  above  average  height. 

The  interior  of  the  plant  is  painted  throughout  in  a  light 
color.  Factory  green  or  other  neutral  tint  is  applied  to  a  height 
of  about  five  and  one-half  feet  from  the  floor.  The  wide  space 
between  buildings  and  the  light  walls  are  of  great  importance  in 
securing  good  light. 

Window-shades  are  provided  where  the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun  might  be  a  source  of  annoya.nce  to  the  employes. 

Many  of  the  small  foundries  in  Buffalo  were  found  to  have 
poor  daylight  conditions.  Most  of  the  buildings  were  old  and 
the  window-space  limited.  Moreover,  little  or  no  attention  was 
being  paid  to  the  light-producing  possibilities  in  clean  windows. 
The  value  of  light  wall  coloring  of  high  reflective  power  as  an  aid 
to  interior  illumination  appeared  to  be  recognized  in  but  one  of 
the  small  foundries  inspected. 

Clean  windows  will  go  far  toward  solving  the  lighting  prob- 
lem for  many  plants.  Wherever  possible,  windows  should  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  at  least  once  weekly.  The  increase  in  effici- 
ency in  the  workmen,  the  decrease  in  accident  hazard,  and  the 
expenditure  for  artificial  light  are  all  items  that  would  thus  be 
materially  affected. 

In  a  number  of  plants  which  were  equipped  with  an  abundance 
of  window-space  it  was  found  that  the  accumulated  dust,  grease, 

127 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

and  grime  on  the  window-panes  cut  down  the  natural  illumina- 
tion almost  to  zero — so  much  so,  in  fact,  that  it  was  necessary 
during  practically  all  the  working  hours  of  the  day  to  resort  to 
artificial  light. 

Experience  in  many  progressive  foundries  throughout  the 
country  has  proved  the  value  of  light  wall  coloring  as  an  adjunct 
to  natural  and  artificial  light.  Walls  and  columns  should  be 
cleaned  at  frequent  intervals,  by  brush  or  air,  if  all  the  value  of 
their  reflective  powers  is  to  be  held.  In  general  it  may  be  said 
that  if  the  available  lighting  facilities  of  the  average  foundry 
were  properly  maintained,  most  of  the  dark  spots  now  illumined 
with  an  incandescent  would  be  sufficiently  served  by  sunlight. 

The  finishing  of  factory  and  shop  walls  in  white  was  carried 
out  in  practically  every  plant  where  the  dust  accumulation  was 
small.  This  applies  to  machine  shop,  the  textile  and  garment- 
making  industries,  breweries,  factories  in  loft  buildings,  etc. 

Many  of  the  older  buildings  in  the  acid  plants  inspected  in 
Buffalo  were  lacking  in  daylight.  The  window-space  was  small, 
and  the  arrangement  of  equipment  cut  down  the  light.  In  the 
buildings  of  recent  construction  the  ceilings  were  higher,  window- 
space  more  ample,  and  monitor  roof  construction  frequently  em- 
ployed. The  newer  buildings  themselves  were  found  to  be  nar- 
rower as  compared  to  the  length.  This,  with  the  higher  ceilings, 
makes  for  better  daylight  conditions. 

The  contrast  between  a  shop  with  a  systematized  lighting 
arrangement  and  one  poorly  equipped  is  very  marked.  The 
dark  spots  and  shadows  of  the  latter  make  for  a  disorderly  ap- 
pearance, and  the  effect  as  one  passes  from  a  brightly  illuminated 
space  to  one  of  comparative  darkness  is  to  make  one  more  or  less 
uncertain  in  his  movements.  The  workman  is  influenced  by  this 
lack  of  uniformity  and  cannot  help  but  fall  into  unsystematic 
habits.  In  other  words,  the  moral  effect  is  bad.  The  neat, 
orderly  appearance  of  the  wood-working  shop  illustrated  on  p.  130 
would  be  completely  altered  had  the  lighting  equipment  been 
arranged  in  a  haphazard  fashion.  It  is  well  to  note  the  efficient 
type  of  reflector  used  in  this  shop,  as  well  as  the  white  walls  and 
ceilings,  which  also  act  as  reflectors  and  make  for  cheerful  work- 
ing conditions. 

128 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

Standards  for  the  illumination  of  various  departments  and 
conditions  have  been  prepared  by  illuminating  engineers,  and  for 
those  seeking  a  manual  of  such  information  there  is  recommended 
the  ''Code  of  Lighting  Factories,  Mills,  and  Other  Work  Places," 
prepared  by  Committees  of  the  Illuminating  Engineering  So- 
ciety, 129  West  39th  Street,  New  York,  and  issued  under  the 
direction  of  the  Society. 

While  the  code  is  intended  as  an  aid  to  industrial  commissions 
and  other  similar  bodies  in  those  states  and  municipalities  which 
shall  actively  take  up  the  questions  of  legislation  as  related  to 
factory  and  mill  lighting,  it  is  intended  in  equal  measure  for  the 
industries  themselves  as  a  practical  working  guide  in  individual 
efforts  to  improve  lighting  conditions.  The  language  of  the  code 
has  not  been  drafted  according  to  legal  phraseology,  but  is  simple 
and  pointed  throughout,  thus  readily  available  for  transforming 
into  legal  orders,  and  at  the  same  time  as  a  working  guide  in 
practical  design  and  installation  work. 

Recommendations:  In  illumination,  two  forms  of  light  must 
be  considered,  viz.,  natural  and  artificial.  The  two  undesirable 
features  common  to  both  are  undue  brilliancy  or  "glare"  and 
heavy  shadows. 

Glare  may  be  caused  if  the  angle  between  the  direction  of 
vision  of  the  eye  when  applied  to  the  work  it  is  called  upon  to  do 
and  the  line  from  the  eye  to  the  source  of  light  is  too  small.  The 
minimum  angle  may  be  provisionally  assumed  to  be  30  degrees. 
(The  Illuminating  Engineer,  Vol.  3,  19 10,  Prof.  L.  Webber.) 

Glare  may  be  caused  also  by  reflection  of  images  of  light 
sources  from  glossy  or  polished  surface  viewed.  It  may  be 
mitigated  or  eliminated  by  reducing  the  brightness  of  light 
sources  and  by  eliminating  polished  surfaces  where  practicable. 

Heavy  shadows  may  be  avoided  by  having  the  sources  of 
light  distributed  as  evenly  as  possible,  and  by  making  adequate 
provision  for  diffusing  the  light  throughout  the  room.  This 
diffusion  is  best  effected  by  having  decorations  in  light  colors, 
by  the  use  of  prismatic  or  ribbed  glass  in  windows,  and  by  suit- 
able shades  or  reflectors  on  the  lights.  Shadows  have  a  certain 
value  in  assisting  the  eye  to  gage  distance  and  direction;  the 
common  failing  is  too  little,  not  too  much,  diffusion. 

129 


EYE    HAZARDS    IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 


130 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 


10 


131 


EYE   HAZARDS    IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

In  regard  to  adequate  window  area  in  proportion  to  floor 
area,  Mr.  D,  R.  Wilson,  in  a  special  report  on  illumination  in 
factories  (see  Annual  Report,  English  Factories  and  Workshops, 
1911),  recommends  that  the  window  area  be  at  least  10  per  cent, 
of  the  floor  area  served,  20  to  30  per  cent,  being  generally  de- 
sirable. 

Direct  light  from  the  sky  is  much  stronger  than  reflected 
light,  so  it  is  important  to  have  high  rooms  with  the  windows  as 
near  to  the  ceiling  as  practicable.  A  few  inches  added  to  the 
height  of  the  windows  may  make  a  great  improvement  in  the 
illumination,  particularly  in  the  center  of  the  room,  where  the 
light  is  poorest. 

Removal  of  obstructions,  and  the  proper  arrangement  of 
machinery  in  relation  to  place  of  windows,  have  much  to  do  with 
securing  proper  illuminating  conditions.  The  machines  should 
be  placed  in  rows  which  run  at  right  angles  to  the  wall  containing 
the  windows,  so  that  there  will  not  be  the  glare  of  daylight  di- 
rectly in  the  eyes  of  the  operators,  or  the  occurrence  of  heavy 
shadows  on  the  work  because  of  the  interference  of  the  work- 
man's body  with  the  diffusion  of  the  daylight. 

Ideal  conditions  can  be  more  easily  secured  with  artificial 
light  than  with  natural  light;  it  is  easier  to  control  the  in- 
tensity and  location  of  the  former.  In  the  arrangement  of  arti- 
ficial lights,  the  size  of  light  units  required  should  be  decided  in 
part  by  the  height  of  the  ceilings.  In  low  rooms  small  units 
spaced  at  frequent  intervals  are  most  desirable,  while  where  the 
ceilings  are  high,  larger  units  with  wider  spacing  should  be  used 
to  prevent  glare  and  provide  even  distribution  over  the  floor 
area. 

The  location  of  light  units  should  correspond  with  the  fore- 
going suggestion  that  an  angle  of  not  less  than  30  degrees  should 
be  subtended  from  the  source  of  light  to  the  eye,  and  thence  to  the 
work. 

The  intensity  of  illumination  needed  for  diff^erent  operations 
is  an  exceedingly  variable  quantity,  for  which  it  is  difficult  to 
outline  definite  standards.  It  is  governed  by  the  nature  and 
degree  of  fineness  of  the  work  to  be  done;  by  the  quality  of  the 

132 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

surface  worked  upon  (whether  light  or  dark  in  color,  rough  or 
polished,  etc.),  and  to  a  certain  extent  by  the  visual  requirements 
of  each  individual. 

The  National  Electric  Light  Association,  New  York,  has 
provided  a  list  based  upon  data  which  it  has  secured,  which  indi- 
cates the  approximate  amount  of  illumination  considered  desir- 
able in  certain  characteristic  industries.  The  reader  is  referred 
to  their  publication,  entitled  "  Industrial  Lighting."     Also,  the 


Fig.  46. — Semi-indirect  office  gas  lighting.     Note  the  absence  of  shadows  even 
on  the  ceiling.     Consolidated  Gas  Company  of  New  York. 

Illuminating  Engineering  Society,  New  York,  has  for  distribu- 
tion a  valuable  booklet  entitled  "Light,  Its  Use  and  Misuse," 
which  can  be  secured  from  any  lighting  company. 

The  National  Committee  for  the  Prevention  of  Blindness  re- 
ceives many  inquiries  for  information  in  regard  to  illumination. 
To  certain  of  these  inquiries  its  Sub-Committee  on  Illumination 
has  prepared  replies.  From  the  information  thus  made  available 
the  following  notes  have  been  prepared  : 

133 


EYE   HAZARDS    IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

Office  Lighting. — In  large  installations  of  importance  expert 
advice  should  be  obtained  if  best  illumination  results  are  to  be 
had.  Often  useful  assistance  can  be  obtained  from  local  lighting 
companies.  For  general  guidance,  however,  it  may  be  stated 
that  illumination  of  the  order  of  4  foot  candles  (lumens  per 
square  foot)  on  the  working  plane  is  regarded  as  reasonably  satis- 
factory for  the  generality  of  offices.  Under  various  conditions 
illumination  of  this  value  may  be  obtained  with  energy  expendi- 
ture of  the  order  indicated  in  the  following  table: 


WATTS  PER  SQ.  FT.  TO  YIELD  4  FOOT  CANDLES  (LUMENS  PER 

SQ.  FT.)  * 


Fin 

ish 

Direct  Lighting 
System 

Semi-Indirect  Lighting 
System 

Indirect  Lighting 
System 

Tungsten  Filament  Lamps 

CeUing 

Walls 

Vacuum 

Gas  Filled 

Vacuum 

Gas  Filled 

Vacuum 

Gas  FUled 

White 
Cream  or 

ivory 
Light  buff 

Light 

Medium 
Dark 

0.67 

0.73 
0.8 

0.55 

0.60 
0.67 

0.89 

I.O 
1. 14 

0.74 

0.83 
0.95 

115 
1.33 

2.0 

0.95 

I. II 
1.67 

GAS  MANTLE  LAMPS  (INVERTED) 
CU.  FT.  OF  GAS  PER  SQ.  FT.  TO  YIELD  4  FOOT  CANDLES  (LUMENS 

PER  SQ.  FT.)t 


Finish 

Direct  Lighting 
System 

Semi-Indirect 
Lighting  System 

Indirect  Lighting 
System 

Ceiling 

Walls 

Cluster  Units 

Cluster  Units 

Cluster  Units 

White 

Cream  or  ivory 
Light  or  buflf 

Light 

Medium 

Dark 

.030 
.036 
.042 

.042 
.050 
.058 

.084 
.100 
.146 

*  The  data  regarding  electrical  illumination  were  compiled  by  the  Electrical 
Testing  Laboratories,  New  York,  at  the  request  of  the  Committee. 

t  The  data  regarding  gas  illumination  contributed  by  the  Consolidated 
Gas  Company,  New  York. 


That  is  to  say,  depending  upon  the  reflecting  qualities  of  the 
interior  finish  of  the  office  and  upon  the  character  of  the  lighting 

134 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

equipment,  as  well  as  upon  the  type  of  lamps  used,  one  may  ob- 
tain illumination  of  4  foot  candles  on  the  working  plane  with 
expenditures  of  energy  ranging  from  a  minimum  of  0.55  to  2.0 
watts  per  square  foot  for  electric  lighting,  and  a  minimum  of 
.030  to  .146  cu.  ft.  of  gas  per  sq.  ft.  for  gas  lighting.  Illumina- 
tion of  higher  intensity  may  be  obtained  under  like  conditions 
with  proportionately  greater  expenditures  of  energy. 

It  is  customary  in  office  lighting  to  install  lighting  fixtures  in 
the  center  of  rooms  or  bays  where  the  room  or  bay  is  high  in 
relation  to  its  length  and  width.  If  the  ceiling  is  low  in  relation 
to  the  length  or  width,  it  may  be  necessary  to  install  the  fixtures 
in  the  middle  of  imaginary  rectangles  into  which  the  room  area 
may  be  divided. 

Whatever  the  type  of  installation  adopted,  whether  direct, 
semi-indirect,  or  indirect  lighting  fixtures  are  used,  a  fairly  high 
degree  of  diffusion  is  important  in  office  lighting.  The  surface 
from  which  the  light  is  derived  should  be  relatively  large  in  order 
to  obtain  such  diffusion. 

Equipment. — Diffusion  of  light  effected  by  a  globe,  shade,  or 
reflector  depends  chiefly  upon  the  area  of  the  surface  from  which 
the  light  is  distributed,  and  upon  the  finish  of  that  surface.  In- 
creased area  and  more  diffuse  or  mat  finish  brings  increase  in 
diffusion.  While  it  is  not  necessarily  the  case,  yet  in  practice 
highest  diffusion  generally  is  obtained  by  the  use  of  indirect 
lighting  fixtures,  the  lowest  diffusion  by  the  use  of  direct  lighting 
fixtures.  Semi-indirect  lighting  fixtures  range  from  a  degree  of 
diffusion  of  the  same  order  as  direct  lighting  fixtures,  to  a  degree 
of  diffusion  of  the  order  of  indirect  lighting  fixtures.  That  is  to 
say,  dense  semi-indirect  bowls  which,  when  installed,  are  no 
brighter  than  the  ceiling  above  them,  produce  the  same  order  of 
diffusion  as  opaque  indirect  lighting  fixtures.  While  it  is  not 
necessarily  the  case,  yet  it  is  generally  a  fact  in  practice  that  in- 
crease in  diffusion  is  accompanied  by  decrease  in  the  percentage 
of  light  delivered  upon  the  most  useful  plane.  For  various  pur- 
poses particular  degrees  of  diffusion  are  most  desirable.  When 
the  desired  degree  of  diffusion  for  a  given  installation  is  ascer- 
tained, it  can  usually  be  obtained  in  a  satisfactory  manner  by 
one  or  more  of  the  types  of  fixtures  which  have  been  mentioned. 

135 


EYE   HAZARDS   IN   INDUSTRIAL   OCCUPATIONS 

When  the  indirect  system  of  Hghting  was  first  developed,  it 
differed  radically  from  the  direct  system  of  lighting  then  in  gen- 
eral use.  Later  the  semi-indirect  system  became  likewise  popular 
and  the  development  of  the  past  few  years  in  each  type  of  light- 
ing has  been  in  the  direction  of  a  common  result,  lying  between 
the  extremes  represented  by  the  original  direct  and  indirect 
lighting  systems. 

Generally  speaking,  higher  degrees  of  diffusion  are  required 
for  exacting  work  on  plain  surfaces,  such  as  reading,  writing, 
drafting,  et  cetera.  Ordinarily,  such  diffusion  is  obtained  at  the 
expense  of  definite  direction  for  the  greater  part  of  the  light. 
Where  good  appearance  of  a  room  is  the  principal  requirement, 
a  high  degree  of  diffusion  generally  is  not  desired,  because  with- 
out a  dominant  direction  for  most  of  the  light,  the  room  appears 
flat  and  perspective  is  lacking. 

Local  vs.  General  Illumination. — Experience  indicates  that  in 
most  industrial  installations  reliance  should  never  be  placed 
exclusively  upon  local  illumination.  There  should  always  be 
some  general  illumination  in  order  not  to  subject  the  eyes  to 
extreme  contrasts  of  light  and  shadow  when  directed  toward  the 
place  illuminated  locally  and  when  directed  elsewhere.  In  some 
classes  of  work  general  illumination  alone  may  serve.  In  others, 
general  illumination  supplemented  by  local  illumination  yields 
best  results. 

Daylight  Illumination. — Illumination  by  daylight  is  a  com- 
plicated problem.  With  windows  of  a  given  size  the  amount  of 
daylight  admitted  would  depend  upon  the  exposure  to  the  sky. 
Direction  of  exposure,  obstructions  such  as  buildings,  trees,  etc., 
reflecting  qualities  of  such  obstructions,  also  the  thickness  of  the 
walls,  the  dimensions  and  interior  finish  of  the  room,  are  factors 
which  affect  the  light  admitted  by  a  given  window.  The  Il- 
luminating Engineering  Society  has  prepared  a  Code  of  Lighting 
School  Buildings  from  which  the  following  statements  are  taken  : 

Rooms  more  than  20  feet  in  width  can  rarely  be  lighted 
satisfactorily  from  windows  on  one  side  only.  When  the  light- 
ing is  from  windows  on  one  side  of  the  room,  the  area  of  the 
windows  ought  to  be  at  least  25  per  cent,  of  the  floor  area.  When 
the  lighting  is  from  two  sides  of  the  room,  the  window  area  ought 

136 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

not  to  fall  below  20  per  cent,  of  the  floor  area.  The  reader  is 
likewise  referred  to  the  Code  of  Lighting  Factories  obtainable 
from  the  same  source. 

Good  results  are  obtained  if  no  part  of  the  room  is  more  dis- 
tant from  a  window  than  twice  the  height  of  the  top  of  the  win- 
dow from  the  floor.  With  unobstructed  horizon  good  results 
have  been  found  when  the  visible  sky  subtends  at  least  a  vertical 
angle  of  five  degrees  at  any  working  point  of  the  room. 

THE  SAFETY  MOVEMENT 

With  the  safety  problem  in  general  it  is  not  the  function  of 
this  publication  to  deal.  But  it  may  be  of  service  to  list  briefly 
the  activities  of  those  organizations  which  are  engaged  in  nation- 
alizing safety  effort,  in  order  that  any  who  are  not  familiar  with 
their  undertakings  may  know  what  is  being  done,  and  how. 

The  problem  that  presents  itself  to  any  industrial  concern 
which  undertakes  the  task  of  accident  prevention  is  (i)  to  pro- 
vide proper  and  safe  working  conditions,  and  safeguards  for 
dangerous  machinery,  (2)  to  educate  the  workman  in  the  hazards 
of  his  particular  department  of  work  and  the  use  of  protective 
devices,  (3)  to  see  that  the  protective  devices  are  used  as  in- 
tended. 

Certain  agencies  are  engaged  in  the  philanthropic  effort  of 
making  worktime  a  safe  time  for  men  and  women.  A  brief 
description  of  the  service  being  rendered  by  two  of  the  chief  of 
such  agencies  is  given  herewith. 

THE  NATIONAL  SAFETY  COUNCIL 

{Headquarters,  Chicago,  Illinois — W.  H.  Cameron,  General  Manager) 

The  membership  of  the  National  Safety  Council,  an  organi- 
zation less  than  five  years  old,  now  numbers  3293  industrialists, 
with  over  15,400  representatives  and  4,500,000  workmen.*  As  a 
part  of  the  safety  service  rendered  by  this  organization,  over  five 
million  bulletins  in  brief,  pointed  paragraphs,  aptly  illustrated, 
were  issued  during  the  year  ended  July  31,  19 17.  Posted  weekly 
on  factory  bulletin  boards,  under  the  time  clock,  or  at  other 
*  Annual  Report  of  the  General  Manager  for  year  ending  July,  1917. 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

prominent  places,  these  bulletins  have  driven  home  the  lesson  of 
safety,  time  and  time  again — ofttimes  telling  their  story  so  lucidly 
by  illustration  alone  that  their  meaning  was  plain  even  to  those 
workmen  from  *'the  old  country"  who  could  not  as  yet  read  the 
text. 

There  are  now  33  State  and  Local  Councils  which  have  been 
organized  by  the  national  organization.  They  have  provided 
the  impetus  which  has  in  many  cases  been  solely  responsible  for 
the  enlistment  of  new  recruits  to  the  safety  movement. 


BoUetiiis  Arc  Read  by  3^,000  WorioDn  taA  Wedc  | 
NATIONAL  SAFETY  COUNCIU  Chicaco.  Ilu 


I  BnlletiBS  Are  Read  b73^,000  Worloaen  Each  Week  / 
NATIONAL  SAFETY  COUNCIL,  Chicaoo.  Iu_  ^ 


GOGGLES    SAVED    THIS    MAN       JO  M CIl  WllO  TMnk 

FROM    TOTAL    BLINDNESS 


Head,  Face  and  Hand 
Badly  Burned  With 
Molten  Iron 


"=^^1 


But  the  windows  of 
his  soul  (his  eyes 
are  0.  K. 


THINK  WHAT  IT  WOULD  MEAN  TO  MOTHER 
AND    THE    KIDS    TO    HAVE    VOU    BLIND 

Wear  Your  Goggles 


Fig.  47- 


Fig.  48. 


When  the  United  States  entered  the  war,  the  services  of  the 
Council  were  offered  to  the  Federal  Government.  This  step  re- 
sulted in  its  taking  the  leadership  in  preparing  plans  for  assisting 
the  Government  in  supervising  the  safety  of  workmen  in  its 
plants  during  the  war.  Out  of  these  activities  there  came  a  re- 
quest from  the  United  States  Employees  Compensation  Com- 
mission for  skilled  aid  in  directing  and  supervising  safety  surveys 
in  all   the  Government  navy  yards  and  arsenals.     One  of  the 

138 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

executive  officers  of  the  Council  was  detailed  for  this  service,  in 
which  he  is  now  engaged. 

In  the  publication  of  special  pamphlets  on  safety  problems, 
and  in  the  preparation  of  traveling  exhibits,  there  is  presented  the 
most  comprehensive  and  practical  information  obtainable  upon 
the  subjects  treated.  Briefly,  the  Council  aims  '*to  prevent 
accidents,  to  educate  safety  committees  and  the  public  to  the 
real  facts  connected  with  needless  accidents,  and  to  propagate  con- 
tinually the  safety  idea  and  make  it  an  integral  part  of  American 
life  and  a  growing  influence  in  foreign  countries." 

Various  forms  of  organization  and  methods  of  carrying  on 
the  educational  campaign  have  been  tested  in  the  leading  in- 
dustries throughout  the  country,  and  a  compilation  of  the  results 
secured  would  indicate  that  the  suggestions  offered  in  the  fol- 
lowing brief  resume  on  safety  organization  methods  are  the  best 
methods  to  be  adopted. 

The  organization  should  revolve  around  a  Central  Com- 
mittee which  has  jurisdiction  and  supervision  over  the  work  at 
all  the  plants,  and  is  composed  of  representatives  from  each 
of  the  plants.  This  Committee  is  served  and  advised  by  the 
surgical  and  safety  departments,  and  by  special  committees,  such 
as  master  mechanics,  electrical  engineers,  etc.,  composed  of 
specialists  from  all  plants,  who  investigate  special  and  technical 
questions,  reporting  their  conclusions  to  the  Central  Committee. 
Through  the  plant  organization  the  Central  Committee  is  also 
served  by  the  entire  operating  and  engineering  force  of  each  plant 
in  one  way  or  another.  It  is  in  this  way  that  it  obtains  the  best 
intelligence  and  the  widest  range  of  experience  possible,  and  can 
therefore  make  the  wisest  recommendation.  In  the  same  way 
it  is  also  enabled  to  act  as  a  clearing-house  between  the  plants, 
for  all  sorts  of  safety  information  and  data,  so  that  the  best  plans 
and  ideas  arising  in  each  plant  are  made  available  to  all. 

Subordinate  to  the  Central  Committee  is  the  Plant  Com- 
mittee served  in  the  same  way  by  safety  inspectors,  subcom- 
mittee, etc.  Each  performs  at  the  plant  and  between  depart- 
ments at  the  plant  the  same  functions  that  the  Central  Com- 
mittee does  in  its  work.  Subordinate  to  the  Plant  Committee 
are  the  department  superintendents,  and  to  them,  foremen  and 

139 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

gang  safety  men;  the  safety  instructor  (who  is  an  instructor  of 
new  men)  and  workingmen's  committees,  which  inspect  their 
departments  and  investigate  accidents. 

The  foregoing  outline  of  a  plan  for  safety  organization  may 
appear  at  first  glance  to  be  applicable  or  necessary  to  large  in- 
dustrial organizations  only.  However,  it  is  suggested  that  in 
small  plants  employing  say  less  than  250  men,  the  Superintendent 
may  perform  the  same  functions  as  the  Plant  Committee  in  large 
plants.  He  is  served  by  subcommittees  for  investigating  special 
and  technical  questions,  and  by  his  foremen,  who  perform  in- 
spection duties  of  the  Safety  Instructor  of  large  plants,  and  also 
by  workingmen's  committees.  Every  grade  of  operative  should 
be  included.  It  has  been  found  that  it  is  only  where  the  workmen 
themselves  are  given  a  place  and  part  to  perform  in  the  organized 
effort  to  eliminate  industrial  accidents  that  satisfactory  results 
can  be  obtained. 

THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  SAFETY 

{14-18  West  Twenty-fourth  Street,  Nov  York.     Arthur  H.  Young,  Director) 

The  American  Museum  of  Safety  was  organized  and  is  main- 
tained for  the  prevention  of  accidents,  the  elimination  or  lessen- 
ing of  occupational  diseases,  and  the  promotion  of  industrial 
welfare  through  health  efficiency  and  cooperation. 

There  are  now  26  museums  of  safety  and  institutes  for 
the  study  of  industrial  hygiene  in  the  world.  The  American 
Museum  of  Safety — twelfth  in  the  world  series  of  museums — is 
located  in  New  York  City,  at  14  to  18  West  Twenty- fourth  Street, 
where  it  occupies  the  street  floor,  mezzanine,  and  basement. 
Its  collections  include  not  only  actual  devices  and  models  of 
safety  and  sanitary  appliances,  but  also  a  highly  specialized 
library  of  books,  pamphlets,  reports,  photographs,  and  lantern 
slides  illustrating  the  simplest  and  most  practical  methods  of 
protecting  dangerous  machines  and  processes.  The  Museum  is 
absolutely  non-commercial  and  does  not  sell  or  take  orders  for 
any  of  the  devices  it  exhibits. 

Annual  awards  of  medals  are  made  to  those  companies  or  in- 
dividuals who  have,  during  the  previous  year,  done  most  to  con- 
serve the  safety  and  health  of  their  employes  or  the  public. 

140 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

CONCLUSION 

That  the  safety  movement  has  proved  effective  in  reducing 
industrial  accidents  is  unquestioned.  That,  in  spite  of  tempo- 
rary setbacks,  it  will  be  increasingly  effective,  is  assured.  It  is 
not  too  much  to  hope  that  the  day  may  come  when  employers 
and  employes  alike  in  every  industrial  occupation  shall  engage 
themselves  in  a  constant  effort  to  eliminate  the  great  needless 
waste  of  life,  with  the  suffering  and  economic  loss  that  still  loom 
annually  to  such  gigantic  proportions  in  our  country. 

As  to  statistics  relative  to  accident  reduction,  the  following 
paragraph,*  cited  in  part  heretofore,  is  encouraging: 

"The  available  data  do  not  permit  of  an  absolutely  definite 
assertion  at  this  time  as  regards  the  saving  of  life  and  limb  which 
has  resulted  from  the  modern  Safety  First  Movement.  On  the 
basis  of  the  most  trustworthy  available  data,  chiefly  such  as  are 
derived  from  recent  reports  of  industrial*  accident  commissions, 
it  would  seem  a  conservative  assumption  that  the  number  of 
fatal  industrial  accidents  estimated  for  the  year  19 13  at  25,000, 
will  during  the  year  19 16  be  reduced  to  about  22,000.  The 
number  of  serious  injuries  involving  a  labor  loss  of  three  weeks 
or  more,  estimated  at  700,000  for  1913,  will  be  reduced  to  about 
500,000.  All  such  estimates  in  the  absence  of  accurate  and  com- 
plete official  statistics  are  necessarily  merely  an  approximation 
to  the  truth.  When  the  time  limit  of  physical  disability  is 
placed  at  six  weeks  or  more,  the  probable  number  of  serious 
accidents  has  been  reduced  during  the  last  three  years  from  about 
300,000  in  19 13  to  260,000  in  19 16.  On  the  basis  of  this  esti- 
mate, which  is  quite  conservative,  there  has,  therefore,  been  an 
approximate  reduction  of  12.3  per  cent,  in  fatal  industrial  acci- 
dent frequency  during  the  last  three  years.  The  corresponding 
decrease  in  serious  industrial  accident  frequency  has  been  ap- 
proximately 28  per  cent." 

One  of  the  great  factors  responsible  for  the  reduction  in  in- 
dustrial accidents  has  been  the  increasing  spread  of  compensa- 
tion legislation.  Employers  in  states  where  such  laws  now  ob- 
tain have  rapidly  learned  that  the  best  way  to  eliminate  casualty 
expense  is  by  casualty  prevention.     From  a  purely  commercial 

*  "Achievements  and  Possibilities  of  Accident  Prevention  in  American 
Industries,"  Frederick  L.  Hoffman. 

141 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

Standpoint  there  is  also  the  stimulus  provided  by  the  material 
reduction  in  the  cost  of  insurance,  the  reduction  being  ''based 
on  the  extent  and  effectiveness  of  accident  prevention." 


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Fig.  49. — Accident  frequency  ratio  in  a  large  steel  plant,  1900-1913,  show- 
ing a  70  per  cent,  reduction  in  accidents.  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics. 

The  records  of  scores  of  industrial  concerns  might  be  cited, 
showing  splendid  results  in  the  reduction  of  industrial  fatalities 
and  accidents  since  safety  effort  has  been  inaugurated.  The  re- 
sults in  certain  of  the  leading  industries  in  the  country  have  been 
almost  phenomenal,  especially  when  the  brief  space  of  time  is 
considered  during  which  safety  effort  has  been  in  vogue. 


THE  NATIONAL   COMMITTEE  FOR  THE    PREVENTION 
OF  BLINDNESS 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  apropos  to  mention  briefly  the  ac- 
tivities of  the  National  Committee  for  the  Prevention  of  Blind- 
ness, in  the  educational  work  which  it  has  undertaken  for  sight- 
saving  in  the  industries. 

The  objects  of  this  Committee  are:  i.  To  endeavor  to  ascer- 
tain, through  study  and  investigation,  any  causes,  whether  direct 
or  indirect,  which  may  result  in  blindness  or  impaired  vision. 

142 


EYE  HAZARDS  IX  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

2.  To  advocate  measures  which  shall  lead  to  the  elimination  of 
such  causes.  3.  To  disseminate  knowledge  concerning  all  mat- 
ters pertaining  to  the  care  and  use  of  the  eyes. 

The  Committee  serves  as  a  bureau  of  information  and  an 
agency  of  helpfulness  to  all  who  are  interested  in  the  movement 
to  prevent  needless  blindness  and  to  conserve  vision. 

That  part  of  its  program  which  has  been  devoted  to  the 
prevention  of  eye  accidents  in  the  industries  has  been  carried 
forward  in  large  part  by  cooperative  effort  with  National,  State, 
and  local  Labor  Departments  and  Commissions,  the  National 
Safety  Council,  and  the  American  Museum  of  Safety. 

The  Committee's  publicity  efforts  in  this  work  have  been 
devoted  during  the  past  year  to  the  distribution  of  nearly  fifty 
thousand  sets  of  large  posters  for  bulletin  board  use.  Repro- 
ductions of  the  posters  are  shown  in  the  frontispiece  of  this 
publication.  These  have,  during  the  past  year,  been  displayed 
in  factories,  shops,  etc.,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  Each 
poster  is  approximately  16  by  33  inches  in  size.  The  original 
exhibit,  of  which  each  panel  is  3  feet  wide  by  6  feet  high,  is  almost 
constantly  on  display  at  conventions  or  other  national  and  state 
meetings  of  manufacturers  and  safety  directors. 

In  Alabama,  Minnesota,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  Utah,  Wash- 
ington, and  Wisconsin,  State  Commissions  are  now  bringing 
this  educational  material  directly  to  the  attention  of  manufac- 
turers who  report  eye  accidents.  The  following  letter,  sent  out 
as  a  routine  measure  in  Utah,  will  indicate  how  this  service  is 
maintained : 

THE  INDUSTRIAL  COMMISSION  OF  UTAH 

State  Capitol,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 

File  No. 
Date 
Employe 
Employer 

We  beg  to  acknowledge  receipt  of  your  report  in  the  above 
accident. 

Eye  accidents  to  employes  of  Utah  industries  are  becoming 

143 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

altogether  too  numerous,  and  the  compensation  and  medical 
expense  in  connection  therewith  enormous.  Accidents  to  the 
eyes  of  employes  are  not  only  expensive  to  the  industries,  but  are 
among  the  most  serious  in  reducing  the  efficiency  of  the  workmen. 

Many  of  these  injuries  can  be  prevented  by  the  installation 
of  safeguards  and  by  compelling  employes  to  wear  goggles  while 
working  at  machines,  emery  wheels,  chipping,  or  where  liability 
of  eye  injury  is  great.  The  use  of  screens,  carefulness  regarding 
tools,  and  the  inculcation  of  careful  habits  among  workmen  have 
been  instrumental  in  many  plants  in  reducing  this  type  of  acci- 
dents. 

Education  of  the  workmen  is  an  essential  precaution  in  all 
accident  prevention  work;  warning  signs  and  posters  conspicu- 
ously posted  calling  attention  to  the  serious  consequence  of  care- 
lessness and  thoughtlessness  are  of  great  practical  value  in  edu- 
cating workmen. 

To  this  end  The  Industrial  Commission  of  Utah  has  under- 
taken to  forward,  and  recommends  the  use  of,  the  enclosed  coin 
card,  furnished  this  Commission  by  the  National  Committee  for 
the  Prevention  of  Blindness,  130  East  22d  Street,  New  York 
City,  by  all  employers  of  the  State  of  Utah  where  eye  injuries 
occur,  and  if  there  is  anything  further  this  Commission  can  do  to 
assist  employers  throughout  the  State  in  reducing  the  hazard  of 
accidents  to  their  employes,  we  will  be  glad  to  render  such  aid  as 
we  can. 

Respectfully  yours, 

(Signed)     P.  A.  Thatcher, 

Chairman. 

Publicity  effort  has  been  still  further  carried  on  by  the  Com- 
mittee through  "  shop  talks"  in  numerous  factories,  these  being 
given  by  the  Directors,  Advisory  Members,  or  Executives  of  the 
Committee.  That  a  lecture  of  this  nature  might  be  made  gen- 
erally available  the  Committee  has  prepared,  at  the  request  of  the 
National  Safety  Council,  a  digest  of  the  main  hazards  described 
in  this  publication,  in  the  form  of  a  popular  talk  which  may  be 
given  by  any  safety  director  with  or  without  lantern-slide  illus- 
trations. 

Through  these  various  channels,  and  through  direct  contact 
with  industrial  concerns,  the  National  Committee  for  the  Pre- 
vention of  Blindness  is  seeking  to  do  its  part  in  the  movement  for 

144 


EYE  HAZARDS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATIONS 

industrial  safety.  Its  work  is  of  an  entirely  philanthropic  nature, 
and  it  welcomes  as  members  all  persons  wishing  to  promote  the 
public  welfare,  and  who  are  desirous  of  contributing  to  the  sum  of 
human  happiness. 


Universal  Danger  or  Caution  Emblem.  (Red 
ball  in  black  design.)  Adopted  by  the  National 
Safety  Council  after  many  months  of  experiment 
with  various  suggested  colors  and  forms. 


145 


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